Axiom about potential danger. railway

AXIOM ABOUT POTENTIAL HAZARD

The axiom of potential danger is a fundamental postulate of BJD: potential danger is a universal property of the process of human interaction with the environment at all stages of the life cycle.

The axiom of potential danger predetermines that all human actions and all components of the living environment, primarily technical means and technologies, in addition to other positive properties and results, have the ability to generate dangerous and harmful factors. Moreover, any new positive action or result is inevitably accompanied by the emergence of a new potential danger or group of dangers. 3.

It is obvious that at all stages of his development a person constantly strives to ensure personal safety and maintain his health. This desire was the motivation for many of his actions and deeds. Creating a reliable home is nothing more than the desire to provide oneself and family with protection from naturally dangerous (lightning, precipitation, animals, etc.) and harmful (low and high temperatures, solar radiation, etc.) factors. But the appearance of a dwelling threatened its collapse, the introduction of fire into it - poisoning due to smoke, burns and fires.

Even in everyday life we ​​are accompanied by a wide range of negative factors. This includes: air polluted by natural gas combustion products, emissions from thermal power plants, industrial enterprises, vehicles and waste incinerators; water with excessive levels of harmful impurities; poor quality food; noise, infrasound; vibration; electromagnetic fields from synthetic materials, household appliances, televisions, displays, power lines, radio relay devices, ionizing radiation (natural background, medical examination, background from building materials, radiation from devices, household items) medications with excessive and improper consumption; alcohol; tobacco smoke; bacteria; allergens and other factors.

Dangerous and harmful factors caused by human activity and the products of his labor are called anthropogenic.

The natural environment can also be sources of dangerous and harmful factors that are classified as natural. They occur during natural phenomena (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, lightning, etc.), these include high and low ambient temperatures; increased background radiation; landslides, landslides, avalanches, etc.

The increase in anthropogenic impact on the natural environment is not always limited to direct effects, for example, an increase in the concentration of toxic impurities in the atmosphere. Under certain conditions, negative secondary impacts on the natural environment and humans are possible. These include the processes of formation of acid rain, smog, the “greenhouse effect”, destruction of the Earth’s azone layer; accumulation of toxic and carcinogenic substances in the body of animals and fish, in food products, etc.

The energy level of natural hazardous and harmful factors is practically stable, while most anthropogenic

factors continuously increase their energy indicators (increase in voltages, pressures, etc.) while improving and developing new types of equipment and technology (the emergence of nuclear energy, concentration of energy resources, etc.). According to Academician N.N. Moiseev, “humanity has entered a new era of existence, when the potential power of the means it creates to influence the environment becomes commensurate with the powerful forces of nature on the planet. This inspires not only pride, but also fear, because it is fraught with consequences … which can lead to the destruction of civilization and even all life on Earth.

4. CONCEPT OF SAFETY AND DANGER.

Safety as a measure of protecting organisms from internal and external dangers is undoubtedly one of the natural factors of the existence of living systems. At the same time, human safety has its own characteristics, due to the fact that, unlike other living organisms, humans are able to create their own habitat, which is in many ways different from the natural one and therefore has types of hazards that are not characteristic of the natural environment. It is characteristic that conscious human activity formed a new, anthropogenic environment at such a high speed that the adaptive capabilities of living organisms could not cope with it. The adaptive capabilities of the human body itself cannot cope with it.

Experience shows that any human activity, in addition to benefits, also brings negative results, resulting either in environmental damage, or in injuries or even death. That is, as previously stated, it is impossible to create an absolutely safe activity and there is always a risk of negative consequences. Therefore, security should be understood as a comprehensive system of measures to protect people and the environment from dangers generated by specific activities. The more complex the type of activity, the more comprehensive the protection system (security) of this activity. The complex system consists of the following protective measures: legal, organizational, economic, technical, sanitary and hygienic, treatment and prophylactic.

Safe human activity can be represented as a kind of vicious circle in which dangers and human life activities do not intersect and are delimited by the ring of the entire safety complex. It should also be taken into account that the presence of a potential danger from human activity is not always accompanied by its negative human impact. To realize such an impact, three conditions must be met: the danger actually operates; the person is in the danger zone; 10.

The person does not have sufficient means of protection.

Thus, safety is a state of activity in which, with a certain probability, the manifestation of dangers is excluded. This can only be achieved by solving three main problems.

The first task is the identification (detailed analysis) of the hazards inherent in the activity being studied. Identification should be carried out in the following sequence: elements of the environment that create specific hazards are established, and the requirement for a person’s professional suitability to study the activity as a source of hazard. Then the qualitative, quantitative, spatial and temporal identification of the hazards present in the activity under consideration, arising from environmental elements and humans, is provided.

The second task is the development of measures to protect people and the environment from identified hazards, which involves the mandatory selection of methods that would provide the greatest protection effect at optimal costs.

The third task is the development of measures to protect against the residual risk of this activity (they are necessary because it is impossible to ensure absolute safety of the activity). These measures are applied when there is an impact of dangers on a person or the environment (provide first aid or qualified medical care to the victim, rid society of criminal elements, dismantle buildings or structures, free the victim in a transport accident, clean up the contaminated area, etc. . P.).

The third task of ensuring the safety of activities is implemented in our country by health services, State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision, fire protection, the emergency response unit, emergency response services in electrical networks, pipelines, radiation and chemical protection, police, prosecutorial supervision, etc.

Snow avalanches

Avalanche - This is a mass of snow that has slid down a mountain slope and moves under the influence of gravity. It attracts more and more masses of snow along its path. The volume of even relatively small avalanches is about 20 thousand m3, and the volume of one of the avalanches observed in the valley of the Ochapara River (Caucasus) was about 2,500 thousand m3. Avalanches fall at a speed of 70..L 00 km/h (and large dry avalanches can reach 360 km/h). The impact force can reach up to 50 t/m2 (a wooden house can withstand no more than 3 t/m2, and at 10 t/m2, centuries-old trees are uprooted). The destructive effect of avalanches is enhanced by an air wave that moves ahead of the snow mass and, by itself, even without an avalanche impact, causes significant destruction.

Causes of avalanches - This is heavy snowfall (more than 10 mm of moisture per day), or rain on already lying snow, solar heat and an earthquake with a force of more than 5-6 points.

It is known that the optimal conditions for avalanches are snow-covered slopes with a steepness of 30° to 40°. For an avalanche to occur, either 30 cm of fresh snow or at least 70 cm of old snow is needed here. If the slope is steeper than 45°, the avalanche occurs after each snowfall. If the slope is more than 50°, the snow falls to the foot of the slope and the avalanche does not have time to form.

Vast areas of Kazakhstan are subject to the destructive effects of avalanches. The most avalanche-prone mountains are the Kazakhstan Altai, Dzhungar Alatau, and the ridges of the Northern and Western Tien Shan (about 50 thousand km 2). About 200 thousand people are potentially exposed to avalanches. Especially large, with a volume of more than 300 thousand m 3, snow avalanches were observed in 1966 in the Malaya Almatinka River basin. The Medeu dam and skating rink under construction were in the affected area by avalanches. Often avalanche emissions merged into one continuous snowfield 2-3 km long.

According to statistics, avalanches of various types in Europe annually claim about 100 human lives on average.

Avalanche preventive measures are divided into two groups: passive and active.

Facilities

on the traffic area

avalanche protection

guide walls, awnings,
Avalanche cutters, Avalanche guides
hills, dam walls, avalanche cutters

Rice, 27. Methods and types of avalanche fortifications

Passive methods consist in the use of support structures, dams, avalanche cutters, gouges, snow-retaining shields, planting and reforestation, etc. (Fig. 27).

Active methods consist of artificially provoking avalanches by firing from cannons or mortars at those places on the mountain slopes where snow accumulates.

Landslides and collapses

Landslide - sliding displacement down the slope under the influence of gravity of the soil masses forming the slopes of hills > mountains, river, lake and sea terraces (Fig. 28).

Landslides, Unlike landslides, they are observed to a greater extent in high mountain areas, where the slopes are steepest.

Landslides and collapses are quite widespread in

All mountain regions of the republic. In some cases, large

b1e rubble formed by landslides and landslides served

the reason for the formation of picturesque alpine lakes: Bol-

° ° Almaty, Issyk, etc.

Rice. 28. Structure landslide

Causes of landslides and collapses- These are groundwater and surface water, weathering of slopes, earthquakes, human economic activity and some others.

Depending on the mass involved in the landslide process, landslides are divided by power into:

Small up to 10 thousand m 3;

Medium - from 11 to 100 thousand m 3;

Large - from 101 to 1,000 thousand m 3;

Very large - over 1,000 thousand m3.

Landslides occur as a result of imbalance of rocks and are formed, as a rule, in areas composed of alternating water-resistant and aquiferous soil rocks. Landslides and landslides themselves pose a threat only in a limited area immediately adjacent to an unstable slope. However, this type of rock displacement is dangerous because their occurrence often gives rise to catastrophic secondary phenomena - mudflows and floods associated with breakthroughs of temporary dammed reservoirs. This is how the lake broke through. Issyk in 1963; in Kungei Alatau in 1983 a lake burst. Kaindy, in 1984 the lake was partially emptied. Kolsai (lower), in 1989 - the dammed lake burst. Uryukty.

In recent years, the problem of landslides in the low-mountain zone of the Trans-Ili Alatau (zone "p-

« ) due to the intensive use of mountain slopes

K°V " TO- g, ^

country and homestead farming. This is due to the violation of the NO R M and the uncontrolled use of water on loess-thick rocks, which led to a violation of the stability of the slopes, the occurrence of landslides and sloughs. In such a situation, a strong earthquake (by analogy with the famous Gissar earthquake of 1989 in Tajikistan) can provoke massive landslides in the specified area, cause significant damage and lead to numerous casualties.

Anti-landslide measures include the installation of drainage for groundwater and surface water, consolidation of soil with forest plantations, support of soil in places of possible bulging, limitation of economic activity in order to maintain the stability of slopes, etc.

Hydrospheric hazards

Floods

Flood - significant flooding of an area with water as a result of a rise in the water level in a river, lake or sea, caused by an abundant influx of water during snowmelt or rainstorms, wind surges of water, congestion, ice jams, etc.

Particularly severe flooding of a catastrophic nature can occur under the influence of gravitational waves of an underwater earthquake - a tsunami (translated from Japanese as a wave in the bay). The wave height can be more than 20 m and in coastal waters its speed is 50...100 km/h. Tsunamis are possible in eastern Russia: Sakhalin, Kuril Islands, Kamchatka. On the open sea, tsunamis are usually flat and imperceptible to the sea - However, as they approach the coast, their steepness quickly increases and they hit the Regier coast with colossal force.

Hydrologists divided all floods into four types.

Low - observed on lowland rivers and occur once every "" 0 years. They practically do not disturb the rhythm of life with appropriate preparation.

High floods fill quite large river valleys and sometimes significantly disrupt everyday life, even requiring the evacuation of people and occur once every 20-25 years

Outstanding floods occur once every 50-100 years, burying at least 50% of agricultural land and causing mass evacuation of the population. Flooding of cities and towns begins.

Catastrophic floods happen once every 300-200 years: several river systems are flooded, the way of life completely changes (they say this is what the global flood looked like).

In Kazakhstan, floods are observed in the northern, central, western and eastern regions due to the spring melting of snow in the basins of the lowland rivers of the Urals, Tobol, Ishim, Irtysh, Nura, etc., as well as their numerous tributaries. On the Syrdarya, floods occur during freeze-up and ice drift with increased water discharges from the Shardara reservoir in winter, and on the right tributaries of the Irtysh they occur in summer with active melting of glaciers and rainfall.

Large reservoirs pose a real danger in the event of an accident or other natural phenomena. Over 600 thousand km 2 of territory with 72 settlements (including 11 cities) with a population of more than one million people are under threat of flooding. There are 16 reservoirs in total in Kazakhstan, but the greatest danger, in the event of an accident, is represented by the Bukhtarma, Kirov (Taraz), Vyacheslavskoe (south of Astana), Tashutkul (Zhambyl region), and Kargaly reservoirs.

Sewage storage tanks in large cities of the republic (Almaty, Aktobe, Taraz, etc.) pose a great danger. Due to insufficient funds allocated for reconstruction, there is a threat of storage tanks breaking through with the formation of catastrophic floods, which have serious consequences for the population. For example, on January 28-29, 1988, the sewage settling tank of Almaty - Zhamankum burst. The maximum flood levels were within 2...4 thousand m 3 /s, and the volume was 70 million m 3. At the same time, 19 people died, it was destroyed

buildings, structures, road and railway bridges. And it was only because of the sparsely populated area that the cata-r 0 fa did not acquire truly grandiose proportions.

Another cause of flooding may be wind-induced surge of water onto land. It is typical for oceanic and sea coasts and is observed in many places around the world (Russia, Belgium, India, China, etc.)

This phenomenon is also observed in Kazakhstan on the coast of the Caspian Sea. In spring and autumn, during periods of strong winds, the sea coast from the village. Ganyushino (on the border with the Astrakhan region) to the Buzachi Peninsula on Mangyshlak is in many places flooded with water for a distance of up to 50 km. The surges of water here are characterized by one unexpected and insidious property. Due to the slight slope of the area, the high level of groundwater and swampiness, sea water, as it were, regulates the level of groundwater and recharges it. Therefore, during periods of high water, while still far from the sea coastline, in a marshy area, you suddenly find yourself ankle-deep in water, which keeps rising, forming a vast expanse of water around you. This insidious phenomenon even deceives the instinct of animals (saiga), which in large numbers flee to the protective dams.

In the north of the Caspian Sea, surge fluctuations in sea level reach very large values ​​- more than two meters. Sometimes these phenomena are in the nature of natural disasters.

It is interesting to note that in cases where the moraine (wind) comes and the sea level rises, due to a very flat coast, its flooding occurs so quickly that even cars are not able to get away from the water and avoid flooding. Therefore, morena is very dangerous and local residents know this very well.

The average duration of surges and groans in most cases is 10-12 hours, the longest is 24 hours and in rare cases about two days or more.

Another phenomenon of the Caspian Sea is an increase in its level, which leads to flooding and flooding of areas with populated areas, oil wells and power lines.

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The Caspian Sea is considered the world's largest closed endorheic sea. Its characteristic feature is significant periodic (thousand-year, secular and long-term) level fluctuations with a maximum amplitude of up to 25 m over the last 10 thousand years and up to 15 m over the last 2.5 thousand years in the range of absolute elevations of the earth’s surface minus 20- 35 m. Only during our era, six major transgressions of the Caspian Sea were observed with the amplitude of level fluctuations ranging from 5-10 m, each time devastating the coast of this sea and causing the death of many centers of civilization. This, apparently, is due to the fact that in the Caspian zone, especially in its often flooded northern part, there are no large ancient cities, and its coast has been inhabited since historical times by tribes that led a nomadic lifestyle.

The level of the Caspian Sea has been rising for 20 years. For the period 1978-1993. sea ​​level rose by about three meters. The average rate of sea level rise over these years was about 14 cm per year. During this time, the Caspian Sea overflowed its banks 20...40 km deep into the territory and flooded seven settlements, 600 thousand hectares of land, 127 oil wells, 1.5 thousand km of power lines, etc.

If sea level rises to minus 25 m, which could happen by 2010 (in 1996 the level reached minus 26.6 m), 3 million hectares of pasture land will be flooded (2.5 million hectares by sea and 0.5 million hectares - surge waters). The cities of Atyrau and Aktau with their most important facilities will be flooded: an oil refinery, a chemical complex, a seaport, and the Mangystau energy plant; 43 oil fields will be flooded. Even a partial reduction in damage from this phenomenon requires annual costs amounting to hundreds of millions of tenge.

Floods are a fairly common phenomenon on Earth and, taking into account the reasons that cause them, the following classification can be given, Table. 40.

The loss of life during floods and enormous material damage forces people to study this phenomenon and find ways to protect themselves from it.

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Of great importance in the fight against floods is timely warning of the population and evacuation of possible flooding. The most effective fights against floods are timely clearing of ice and jams from the pitch, construction of reservoirs, dams and flow-directing embankments, etc.

* and for "zhors on the rivers during the period of ice drift
methods involving ver-

Atmospheric hazards

Wind movement of air masses ^

from the place of origin (land, sea), from

Table 41

Wind force scale

Points	Speed	Wind characteristics	Wind action
m/s	km/h
			Calm	Complete absence of wind. Smoke rises vertically from chimneys
I	0,9	3,24	Quiet	The smoke from the chimneys does not rise entirely vertically.
				There are ripples in the cold; "
	2,4	8,64	Easy	The movement of air is felt by the face. The leaves are rustling.
				The weather vane starts to move...
	4,4	15,84	Weak	Leaves and thin branches sway continuously.
				Light flags flutter
	6,7	24,12	Moderate	Thin tree branches sway. The wind raises dust and shreds
				paper The waves on the sea are elongated and white in many places
				lambs
	9,3	23,48	Fresh	Thin tree trunks sway. The waves on the sea are not very good
				large, but white lambs are visible everywhere
	12,3	43,30	Strong	Thick tree branches sway. Telephone wires are humming.
				Large waves and white foamy crests form
				over a large area
	15,5	55.8 Strong	Tree trunks sway. It's difficult to go against the wind. „ d. ^.1.
\ \ 1	Foaming waves rise on the sea -^_ts^^^_|
I 8	18.9 1 68.4 1 Very strong	Tree branches break. Walking against the wind is very difficult. \ The sea waves are moderately high and long. Sprays fly up\
9	22,6	79,44	Storm (storm)	The buildings are a little destroyed. Trees bend and break 1 branch. Roof tiles and smoke hoods are torn off. The waves are high.
				Wave crests capsize and crumble
	26,4	95,0	Heavy storm	Buildings are significantly destroyed. Trees break and are torn out
			(strong storm)	with the root. The waves are very high and covered with white foam.
				Visibility is poor
	30,5	109,8	Fierce Storm	The buildings are badly damaged. Roofs are being torn off. Waves on the sea
			(violent storm)	so high that they hide medium-sized ships and the edges of the waves
				blown away into foam
	34,8	122,28	Hurricane	Devastating destruction. Wooden buildings are destroyed.
				The sea is covered with stripes of foam. Visibility is very poor
	39,2	144,6	Strong hurricane	Devastating destruction
	43,8	157,68	Same	Stone structures and metal bridges are destroyed
	48,6	174,9	Fierce Hurricane	Same
	53,5	192,6	Same	,** " . . " " - "
	58,6	210,96	"	-"",- . ", " .
	And	And
	more	more		. .....

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in the northern hemisphere and clockwise - in the south. The width of the cyclones that arise and develop in extratropical ** companies - extratropical cyclones - is of the order of thousands of kilometers at the beginning of development and up to several thousand at the stage of a central cyclone, the wind speed is six to eight points, in the ry reaches up to stormy, and sometimes even hurricane-like, cyclones occur in tropical latitudes. Their average width is several hundred kilometers, height is 6-15 km.

The central part - the “eye of the storm” - has low pressure, weak winds and low clouds. It is surrounded by a ring of dense clouds with hurricane speeds of rotation. Tropical cyclones of the Atlantic Ocean are usually called hurricanes, and typhoons of the western Pacific Ocean.

Typhoons, formed in the Pacific Ocean, usually reach the strength of the most powerful hurricane and are accompanied by intense rainfall. At sea, they form huge waves, which, bursting onto the coast, destroy villages, cities and flood entire areas. Once on land, typhoons quickly die out. Their approach is accompanied by a very strong drop in atmospheric pressure.

The destructive power of typhoons is so great that special government organizations have been created in some countries to study and forecast them. According to established tradition, each typhoon is assigned a female name.

The energy released by typhoons is equal to the explosion of many nuclear charges. They most often occur in Japan, China, and the USA (up to 120 per year). In the CIS, typhoons reach the regions of the Far East, Primorye, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.

Storms, as can be seen on the Beaufort scale, they have 9-11 points. Storms cause strong disturbances on the water, and great destruction on land: trees are uprooted, cars and construction cranes are overturned, and houses are destroyed.

Tornadoes(in Europe they are called “thrombi”, in America “tornado”) - a vortex movement of air that arises in a thundercloud and then spreads in the form of a black giant sleeve or trunk, rarefied inside. When it descends to the surface of the earth, its base becomes like a funnel with a diameter of about 30 m and a height of 800-1500 m.

time

during its existence, it can travel a distance of 40-60 km.

and after the tornado, the air rarefaction is so great that sometimes

structures that are in its path are destroyed by explosion as a result of air pressure from the inside. The same thing happens as from a shock wave in the rarefaction phase.

There are invisible, water and fire tornadoes. Tornadoes have amazing wind speeds, sometimes exceeding the speed of sound. They uproot trees, overturn cars, trains and ships, lift into the air or overturn houses, turn buildings around their axis, tear off roofs or completely destroy them. They carry people, livestock and various objects to the side, sometimes for several kilometers. Along the way, they absorb small lakes and other bodies of water along with the flora and fauna that inhabit them, which are then transported over long distances and fall to the ground along with the rain.

An engineering analysis of the causes of destruction caused by tornadoes shows that they arise due to the lifting and throwing of objects by a whirlwind, high pressures, explosions, crushing, crushing, splitting and other influences.

Hurricane - wind force 12. Its speed exceeds 32 m/s. A hurricane devastates everything in its path: breaks trees, destroys buildings, etc. Hurricanes can serve as natural analogues of several thermonuclear explosions. Statistics from the US Hydrometeorological Service for 1900-1950. show that the kinetic energy of a hurricane within a radius of 160 km from its center is equivalent to a nuclear explosion with a power of 151-188 Mt.

Calculations show that the energy of a strong hurricane is such that the Bratsk hydroelectric power station can only produce it for 30 thousand years. In terms of the force of their harmful impact on engineering structures, hurricanes are almost as good as earthquakes, especially considering that large earthquakes occur once every few decades, and hurricanes occur several times a year. It is not for nothing that hurricanes are called the most powerful force in nature.

Hurricane winds are common in Kazakhstan. Tornadoes also occur here (for example, in 1947, a tornado in East Kazakhstan with a width of 160 m destroyed an area

The village has 17 residential buildings, three institutions and 12 outbuildings).

The territory of Kazakhstan extends for 1,700 km from north to south and 3 thousand km from west to east, so there is plenty of wind here. For 18 years, from 1970 to 1987, 418 hurricanes were observed on the territory of Kazakhstan, from 5 to 30 hurricanes annually with wind speeds of 38...60 m/s.

The Dzungarian Gate has the greatest wind activity. If on average in Kazakhstan strong winds blow 40-60 days a year, then through the Dzhungar Gate - 142 days a year. Moreover, out of 418 hurricanes (1970-1987), 200 occurred at the Zhalanashkol weather station, located at the exit from the Dzhungar Gate. The maximum wind speed recorded here during the hurricane on January 28, 1958 was 72 m/s (260 km/h). This hurricane wind is called "Eugep"(or Ibe, Ebi, Yu-be). It occurs on average 11 times a year (for example, hurricanes of the Mugojar Mountains - 2 times a year) and lasts on average 25 hours (however, in 1981 it blew for a whole week from December 15 to 22 at a speed of 42-51 m/s ) . Most of these hurricanes occur during the cold period of the year from October to April (98%), and they are most common in January (26%).

Forecasting the wind in the area of ​​the Dzhungar Gate is important for the economy. There is a railway line here, and to the north there is a group of lakes where fishing is carried out.

The Dzungarian Gate is a valley 200 km long and 10-20 km wide, located between the eastern spurs of the Dzungarian Alatau and the Mailitau ridge in China. It connects Lake Ebinor in China with the Balkhash-Alakul depression in Kazakhstan. In winter, a high pressure area - the Mongolian anticyclone - dominates over the interior regions of Mongolia and China. High wind speeds here occur with a large contrast of pressures at different ends of the valley.

According to research, Ebi does not cover the entire length of the valley, 10-20 km wide, but only a narrow strip of 3-5 km, i.e., this is a typical jet wind, and this wind SNUR tends to adjoin first one or the other slope valleys, otherwise meander. Only in some cases

goes through the middle. Breaking out into the Alakul valley, gradually weakening, it reaches Balkhash.

Eugei's closest neighbor should be called strong

e r 0 _east wind Saikan, breaking out through a mountain hike between the southern spurs of Tarbagatai (Arkarly) and the Barlyk ridge through the river valley. Emel to Lake Alakol. The frequency and speed of Saikan's wind are significantly lower than that of Evgei (up to 40 m/s and duration up to 50 hours).

Another mountain pass between the Saur and Southern Altai ridges along the valley of the Black Irtysh River and the Trans-Ili Basin is characterized by the presence of strong winds. The average number of days with strong winds (more than 15 m/s) here is 65 cases per year, and the maximum is 115. The duration of the Zaisan wind does not exceed 1-5 hours. The origin of all these winds is associated with the presence in winter of an area of ​​high pressure over Mongolia and low pressure in Kazakhstan, when a “wind tunnel” effect occurs in narrow mountain passes.

Analysis of people's activities and lives gives rise to a statement known as the “axiom of potential danger”, which implies that any activity is potentially dangerous.

Potential danger as a phenomenon is the possibility of a person being exposed to negative or incompatible factors with life.

The axiom about the potential danger of activity - a fundamental postulate - forms the basis of the scientific problem of ensuring human safety. This axiom has at least two important conclusions necessary for the formation of a security system:

• it is impossible to develop an absolutely safe type of human activity, to develop absolutely safe technology;
• no type of activity can provide absolute safety for humans (zero risk).

Dangers– these are processes, phenomena, objects that have a negative impact on human life and health.

Axiom 1. Any technical system is potentially dangerous.

The potential for danger is hidden, implicit in nature and manifests itself under certain conditions. No type of technical system during its operation can achieve absolute safety.

Axiom 2. Technogenic hazards exist if everyday flows of matter, energy and information in the technosphere exceed threshold values.

Threshold or maximum permissible hazard values ​​are established based on the condition of maintaining the functional and structural integrity of humans and the natural environment. Compliance with the maximum permissible flow values ​​creates safe conditions for human activity in the living space and eliminates the negative impact of the technosphere on the natural environment. Dangers arise when there are defects and other malfunctions in technical systems, or when technical systems are used incorrectly. Technical malfunctions and violations of the modes of use of technical systems lead, as a rule, to the occurrence of traumatic situations, and the release of waste (emissions into the atmosphere, runoff into the hydrosphere, the entry of solid substances onto the earth’s surface, energy radiation and fields) is accompanied by the formation of harmful effects on humans and the natural environment. environment and elements of the technosphere.

Axiom 4. Man-made hazards operate in space and time. Traumatic influences act, as a rule, short-term and spontaneously in a limited space. They occur during accidents and disasters, during explosions and sudden destruction of buildings and structures. The zones of influence of such negative impacts are, as a rule, limited, although it is possible for their influence to spread over large areas, for example, in the event of an accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

Harmful impacts are characterized by long-term or periodic negative effects on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere. Spatial zones of harmful influences vary widely from working and domestic areas to the size of the entire earth's space. The latter include the impact of emissions of greenhouse and ozone-depleting gases, the release of radioactive substances into the atmosphere, etc.

Axiom 5. Technogenic hazards have a negative impact on humans, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere at the same time. Man and the technosphere surrounding him, being in continuous material, energy and information exchange, form a constantly operating spatial system “man - technosphere”. At the same time, there is also a system “technosphere - natural environment”. Man-made hazards do not act selectively; they negatively affect all components of the above-mentioned systems simultaneously, if the latter are in the zone of influence of the hazards.

Axiom about potential danger

One of the main concepts of life safety is axiom about potential danger. The effect of this axiom extends to the “man - environment” system. Habitat should be understood as the environment of both natural and anthropogenic origin. The axiom predetermines that all human actions and all components of the living environment (primarily technical means and technologies), in addition to positive properties and results, have the ability to generate traumatic and harmful factors. Moreover, any new positive action or result is inevitably accompanied by the emergence of new negative factors.

Potential danger lies in the hidden, implicit nature of the manifestation of dangers. For example, we do not feel an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air until a certain moment. Normally, atmospheric air should contain no more than 0.05% carbon dioxide. Constantly in a closed or poorly ventilated room in which there is a sufficiently large number of people (for example, in a design office), the concentration of carbon dioxide increases. It is colorless and odorless, and an increase in its concentration will manifest itself in fatigue, lethargy, and decreased performance. But in general, the human body, systematically staying in such conditions, will react with complex physiological processes: changes in the frequency, depth and rhythm of breathing (shortness of breath), an increase in heart rate, and changes in blood pressure. This condition is called hypoxia, or oxygen starvation, and may lead to a decrease in attention, which in certain areas of activity can lead to injury, etc.

Potential danger as a phenomenon is the possibility of a person being exposed to unfavorable or incompatible factors with life.

The axiom of potential danger provides quantitative assessment of negative impact, which is assessed by the risk of causing some kind of damage to health and life.

Risk is defined as the ratio of certain undesirable consequences per unit of time to the possible number of events. The concept is gaining recognition in world practice acceptable risk

i.e., the risk at which protective measures allow maintaining the achieved level of safety. The degree of risk is assessed in world practice for various types of activities by the probability of deaths.

Axiom about potential danger.

Any activity is potentially dangerous.

Quantitative hazard assessment - risk (R). Where n - number of cases, N

According to statistics, n = 500 thousand people. (they die unnatural deaths in the industry per year), N = 160 million people.

There is a concept of normalized risk (acceptable risk) R=10 -6.

The focus of the life safety course is on man as an end in itself for the development of society, his presence in any living conditions, while “Labor Safety” is interested in people in production conditions, and “Civil Defense” – in emergency situations.

Modern man lives in a world of dangers - natural, technical, anthropological, environmental, etc.
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These types of hazards interact with each other, exacerbating the consequences.

Life safety is a field of scientific knowledge about preserving human health and safety in the environment, designed to identify and identify dangerous and harmful factors, develop methods and means of protecting people by reducing dangerous and harmful factors to values, and develop measures to eliminate the consequences of emergency situations in peacetime and war.

PURPOSE OF THE COURSE – presentation of achievements in operational safety, ᴛ.ᴇ. equip future specialists with the theoretical and practical skills necessary for:

1. creation of safe and harmless living conditions;

2. design of new technology and technological processes in accordance with modern requirements for the ecology and safety of their operation and taking into account the sustainability of the functioning of national economic facilities and technical systems;

3. forecasting and making competent decisions in emergency situations to protect the population and production personnel from possible consequences, accidents, catastrophes, natural disasters, as well as during the elimination of these consequences.

Safety precautions are the theoretical foundations of safety, applicable to any type of activity.

In addition to achievements in labor protection and civil defense, it also includes achievements in environmental protection, psychology, economics, sociology, physiology, philosophy, hygiene, reliability theory, acoustics and many others.

Structurally, the entire course consists of 4 sections:

1. Theoretical foundations of BJD;

2. Natural aspects of BJD;

3. BZD in production conditions;

4. BZD in emergency situations;

Theoretical foundations of BJJ

Activity is an extremely important condition for the existence of human society.

The highest form of activity is labor. The forms of activity and labor are diverse. Οʜᴎ cover practical, intellectual and spiritual processes that flow in everyday life, social, scientific, etc.
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spheres of life.

The model of the activity process in the most general form can be represented as consisting of two elements – “man” and “environment”, which have direct and feedback connections.

Feedback is due to the universal law of reactivity of the material world. The “human-environment” system has two goals: one goal is to achieve a certain effect, the second is to eliminate undesirable consequences (damage to human health and life, fires, accidents, disasters, etc.)

Phenomena, impacts and other processes that cause these undesirable consequences are called hazards.

Hazards are characterized by traces. signs: threat to life, damage to health, difficulty in functioning of human organs.

There are potential (hidden) and real dangers.

In order for a potential danger to materialize, appropriate measures are needed. conditions which are called causes.

Some examples of hazards and their consequences:

1. The number of natural disasters on Earth in 1990 doubled compared to 1960.

2. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), since 1974, the incidence of neurosis in the world has increased 24 times.

3. Now there are about 500 million disabled people in the world, one in five became disabled as a result of an accident.

4. In the USSR, about 19 million people were injured annually, and about 500,000 people died, incl. in road accidents – 50-60 thousand; in case of fires - 10 thousand; in production – 14 thousand; about 30 thousand become disabled workers every year.

5. According to the State Committee of the USSR, since 1989, the level of injuries throughout the country has increased by 4%, and in individual republics by 11-19%%

Indicators of data on the number of deaths per year per 1 thousand inhabitants

Experience shows that it is impossible to achieve absolute safety in any type of activity; any activity is potentially dangerous. This is an axiom that does not require proof. At the same time, it is recognized that the level of hazard (risk) can be controlled. This statement led to the concept of acceptable risk. The concept is based on the understanding that absolute security is unattainable. Safety is the goal, and safety and security are the means, ways, and methods of achieving it.

BZD solves 3 interrelated problems:

1. Hazard identification, ᴛ.ᴇ. pattern recognition indicating quantities, characteristics and coordinates of danger;

2. Protection from hazards based on comparison of costs and benefits;

3. Elimination of possible (based on the concept of residual risk) negative hazards;

All systems that have energy and chemicals are dangerous. or biologically active components, as well as characteristics that are inappropriate for human living conditions.

Taxonomy of hazards

Taxonomy is the field of scientific knowledge about the classification and systematization of complex phenomena, concepts and objects.

Since danger is a complex concept, having many characteristics, their taxonomy plays a complex role in the organization of scientific research. knowledge in the field of operational safety allows for a deeper understanding of the nature of the hazards. A perfect, sufficiently complete taxonomy of hazards has not yet been developed. This determines the prospects for the creativity of scientists.

By origin hazards can be natural, technical, anthropogenic, environmental, or mixed. According to the official standard, hazards are divided into physical, chemical, biological and psychophysical.

By time of manifestation the negative consequences of danger are divided into impulsive and cumulative.

By localization: associated with the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, space.

According to the consequences caused: fatigue, illness, injury, death...

According to the damage caused: social, economic, technical, environmental, etc.

Areas of danger: household, sports, road transport, industrial, military, etc.

According to their structure (structure), hazards are divided into simple and industrial, generated by the interaction of simple ones.

By the nature of the impact on humans: hazards can be divided into active and passive. Passive dangers include those that are activated by energy, the carrier of which is the person himself. These are sharp (piercing and cutting) fixed elements; uneven surfaces on which a person moves; slopes, rises; slight friction between contacting surfaces, etc.

Nomenclature of hazards

Nomenclature is a list of names and terms, systematized according to a certain criterion. Let's present the nomenclature of hazards in alphabetical order according to WHO (World Health Organization):

alcohol, abnormal air temperature, abnormal air humidity, abnormal air mobility, abnormal barometric pressure, arboricitis, abnormal lighting, abnormal air ionization. Blessness. Vacuum, explosion, explosive substances, vibration, water, rotating parts of machines, height, gases, herbicides, depth, physical inactivity, hypokinesia, ice, hot surfaces, dynamic overloads, rain, smoke, moving objects. Corrosive substances. Diseases, closed volume. Excessive pressure in blood vessels, infrasound, infrared radiation, sparks. Pitching, kinetic energy, corrosion, laser radiation, leaf fall. Magnetic fields, microorganisms, medicines, meteorites, lightning (thunderstorms), monotony. Violation of the gas composition of the air, flooding, scale, insufficient strength, uneven surfaces, incorrect actions of personnel. Flammable substances, fire, weapons (firearms, cold steel, etc.), sharp objects (stabbing and cutting), poisoning, erroneous actions of people, cooling of the surface. Fall (without an established reason), steam, overload of machines and mechanisms, overvoltage of analyzers, pesticides, increased brightness of light, fire, psychological incompatibility, pulsations of light flux, dust. Working posture, radiation, resonance, sensory deprivation, speed of movement and rotation, slippery surface, snowfall, solar activity, sun (sunstroke), drowsiness, static overload, static electricity, typhoons, high frequency current, fog. Shock wave, ultrasound, ultraviolet radiation, mental stress, hurricane, acceleration, fatigue, noise. Electric arc, electric current, electric field, electromagnetic field, emotional stress, emotional overload, poisonous substances, etc.

When performing specific studies, a hazard nomenclature is compiled for individual objects (industrial facilities, workshops, workplaces, processes, professions, etc.)

Quantification of hazards

Quantification is the introduction of quantitative characteristics to evaluate complex, qualitatively defined concepts. Numerical, point and other qualification methods are used.

The most common hazard assessment is risk.

Hazard Identification

The dangers are potential, ᴛ.ᴇ. hidden character.

Identification is the process of detecting and establishing quantitative, temporal, and other characteristics necessary and sufficient for the development of preventive and operational measures aimed at ensuring life.

During the identification process, the nomenclature of hazards, the likelihood of their occurrence, spatial localization (coordinates, possible damage, etc.) are identified.
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Parameters necessary to solve specific problems.

Causes and consequences

Causes are a set of circumstances and conditions under which potential dangers are realized, causing certain undesirable consequences or damage.

Danger of cause or consequence are the main characteristics of such events as an accident, emergency situation (ES), fire, etc.

The triad “danger – causes – undesirable consequences” is a logical process of development that realizes potential danger into real damage (consequence). As a rule, this process includes several reasons, ᴛ.ᴇ. is multi-causal.

The same danger can manifest itself into an undesirable event through different reasons.

The root of accident prevention is finding the causes. Examples:

1. Poison (danger) – pharmacist error (cause) – poisoning (undesirable consequences);

2. Electric current - short circuit - burn

3. Alcohol - drinking too much - death.

Basic principles of risk theory

A large place in life is occupied by various events called accidents that cause harm to person and property.

Events of this kind are unforeseen due to which they are attributed to fate, fate, chance, misfortune, verse. disasters, etc.

This negative-passive approach is still partly justified in relation to the forces of nature, but a more active positive approach is gradually emerging, especially to the dangers arising from human activity.

It is now recognized that most accidents are predictable and can therefore be prevented by appropriate safety measures.

Nowadays, the concept of “security” has acquired a broader meaning than it did before. It is considered, as a rule, in the aspect of “no harm” to health and property.

Since harm is a consequence of risk, safety in our time is often called the absence of risk.

A state of safety is a state in which there is no danger of an accident that could cause harm.

When defining safety, you should always express it in terms of several risks. There are as many degrees of safety as there are degrees of risk.

Complete safety regarding any risk must be achieved only by eliminating its source. In all other cases, one or another degree of risk remains, and therefore the achieved safety is lower than the theoretical one hundred percent safety.

In Soviet technical literature, the concept of risk has not yet received adequate recognition. V. Marshall in the book “The Main Dangers of Chemical Production,” 1989 ᴦ., 671 pp.
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gives the following definition: ʼʼRisk is the frequency of occurrence of hazards.ʼʼ

The most general definition is the following: ʼʼ Risk - ϶ᴛᴏ quantitative assessment of hazards. Formally, risk is the frequency of incidents.

Quantitative assessment is the ratio of certain beneficial consequences to their possible number for a certain period.

Potential risk may arise from natural phenomena or human activity.

Natural phenomena include all forms of life on earth (plants, animals, microorganisms); the earth itself (floods, landslides, earthquakes, eruptions, radiation); the atmosphere surrounding the earth (heavy rains, snowfalls, hurricanes, lightning); deep space (radiation, meteorites) and such forces of the universe as gravity and electromagnetism.

The scope of human activity includes the production and use of energy (thermal, electrical, nuclear), as well as materials and products, machine products and labor products; industrial and domestic environment, pollution of the natural environment and other anthropogenic impacts on it.

The potential risk may depend on the properties of a particular source and does not cause harm as long as it remains unrealized.

Under the influence of objective circumstances, a potential risk is transformed into a realized risk (active risk) and an accident or incident occurs (incident).

Quantification of risk and hazards

It is important to note that to compare risks and benefits, many experts propose introducing a financial measure of human life. This approach raises objections from a certain circle of people who argue that human life is sacred and financial transactions are unacceptable.

At the same time, in practice, it inevitably becomes extremely important to make such an assessment precisely for the safety of people, if the question is posed like this: “How much money needs to be spent to save a human life?”

According to foreign studies, human life is estimated from 650 thousand to 7 million US dollars.

It should be noted that the procedure for determining risk is very approximate. There are 4 risk assessment methods:

1. Engineering– based on statistics, frequency calculation, probabilistic safety analysis, construction of hazard trees.

2. Model– based on the construction of models of the impact of harmful factors on an individual, social group, professional group, etc.

3. Expert– when the probability of various events is determined based on a survey of experienced specialists, ᴛ.ᴇ. experts.

4. Sociological– based on a survey of the population.

The listed methods reflect different aspects of risk, and therefore it is extremely important to use them in combination.

The concept of acceptable (acceptable) risk

Previously, traditional safety equipment required categorically to ensure safety and to prevent any accidents.

But despite all the humanity of this requirement, it is almost impossible to ensure zero risk in existing systems.

The modern world has rejected the concept of absolute security and has come to the concept of acceptable (tolerable) risk, the essence of which is the desire for such a small danger that society accepts in a given period of time.

Acceptable risk combines technical, economic, social and political aspects and represents a compromise between the level of safety and the ability to achieve it.

Example 1: Identify risk R pr. death of a person at work in our country in 1 year, if it is known that about Where= 14 thousand people, and the number of workers is about 140 million people.

R pr.= Where / - number of cases,= 14000 / (140 10 6) = 0.0001 = 1 10 -4

Example 2: Every year in our country, about 500 thousand people die due to various dangers of unnatural death. Assuming a population of 300 million people, we determine the risk of death R page residents of the country from dangers.

R page= 500,000 / 300,000,000 = 0.0017 = 1.7·10 -3

Example 3: Let us determine, using the data from previous examples, the risk R d be involved in a fatal accident related to a road traffic accident, if 60 thousand people die in these accidents every year.

R page= 500,000 / 300,000,000 = 0.0002 = 2·10 -4

There are individual and social risks.

Individual risk characterizes the danger of a certain type for an individual.

Social(more precisely group) risk- ϶ᴛᴏ risk for a group of people.

Example Individual risk of death per year due to various causes (based on the entire US population).

Legal and regulatory-technical basis for ensuring safety and security.

The main provisions are set out in the Constitution (Dec. 1994) in the law on labor protection and environmental protection (1992-93) in the Labor Code.

GOSTs, Norms and Rules act as by-laws.

Interaction of state supervision, departmental and public control.

I. Supreme supervision compliance with the law is carried out by the general. prosecutor.

II. Gosnadzor in accordance with Article 107 The Labor Code for compliance with labor safety standards and regulations is carried out:

III.1. specialist. authorized inspections, independent in their work from the company (Roskomhydromet, Gosgortekhnadzor, Gosatomnadzor, etc.);

IV.2. trade unions represented by the legal and technical labor inspectorate.

V. Departmental control carried out by ministries and departments in accordance with subordination.

VI. Public control- FNP represented by trade union committees located at each enterprise.

Axiom about potential danger. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Axiom of potential danger." 2017, 2018.

Most PC users connect their computers into peer-to-peer networks. In such a network, each computer can both share and use all network resources. The most common shared resources are laser and inkjet printers, high-capacity hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and other equipment. The computer that shares resources is called a server, and the computer that uses these resources is called a workstation. Similar names apply to the client/server network.

Peer-to-peer networks are most often used in homes, small businesses, or departments of large organizations. Since the necessary tools for building a peer-to-peer network are already built into the Windows 9x and Windows NT operating systems, the cost of such a network will be low. To build a network, you need the same network adapters as for a client/server network with the Windows NT Server, Windows 2000 or Novell NetWare operating system installed. Therefore, if during the operation of a peer-to-peer network there is a need to switch to a client/server network, the necessary equipment will already be installed.

Peer-to-Peer Network Hardware

At a minimum, two peer-to-peer workstations require the following hardware:

* two network adapters (one per workstation);

* appropriate cable for connection;

* connectors.

To build a peer-to-peer network that connects more than two workstations, it is better to use the hardware described in the next section.

The best solutions for building a peer-to-peer network

The following are the minimum hardware requirements for a peer-to-peer network.

* Ethernet network adapters with PCI interface, twisted pair and RJ-45 connectors (for desktop systems).

* Ethernet network adapters with PC Card or CardBus interface, twisted pair and RJ-45 connectors (for portable systems).

* A hub with at least two free connectors.

The choice of equipment type (10 BaseT or 100BaseT) depends on your financial capabilities and network requirements. I recommend purchasing equipment that meets the Fast Ethernet (100BaseT) standard.

Worst solutions for building a peer-to-peer network

* Network adapters with ISA interface. Their speed leaves much to be desired, and in addition, the ISA bus is excluded from the PC 99 specification.

* Thin Ethernet cable. High cost, complexity of installation, etc.

Axiom about potential danger.

One of the main concepts of life safety is the so-called "axiom of potential danger."

Analysis of public practical activities provides grounds for the assertion that any activity is potentially dangerous.

The potential danger lies in the hidden, implicit nature of the manifestation of dangers. For example, until a certain moment we do not feel an increase in the concentration of CO 2 in the air. Normally, atmospheric air should contain no more than 0.05% CO 2. Constantly in a room, for example, in a classroom, the concentration of CO 2 increases. Carbon dioxide is colorless and odorless, and an increase in its concentration will manifest itself in the appearance of fatigue, lethargy, and decreased performance. But in general, the human body, systematically staying in such conditions, will react with complex physiological processes; changes in the frequency, depth and rhythm of breathing (shortness of breath), an increase in heart rate, changes in blood pressure." This condition (hypoxia) can lead to a decrease in attention, which in certain areas of activity can lead to injury, etc.

Potential danger as a phenomenon is the possibility of a person being exposed to unfavorable or incompatible factors with life.

The axiom of potential danger provides for a quantitative assessment of the negative impact, which is assessed by the risk of causing certain damage to health and life. Risk is defined as the ratio of certain undesirable consequences per unit of time to the possible number of events.

Finds recognition in world practice acceptable risk concept, i.e., the risk at which protective measures allow maintaining the achieved level of safety. For normal general conditions, the acceptable risk of death for a person is taken to be 10 ~ 6 per year, i.e. 1 per 1,000,000 cases per year. The degree of risk is assessed in world practice for various types of activities by the probability of deaths.

Axioms of BJD:

1. Any activity (inactivity) is potentially dangerous.

2. For each type of activity there are comfortable conditions that contribute to its maximum effectiveness.

3. All natural processes, anthropogenic activities and objects of activity have a tendency to spontaneous loss of stability or to long-term negative effects on humans and their environment, i.e. have residual risk.

4. Residual risk is the root cause of potential negative impacts on humans and the biosphere.

5. Safety is real if the negative impacts on humans do not exceed the maximum permissible values, taking into account their complex impact.

6. Environmental friendliness is real if the negative impacts on the biosphere do not exceed the maximum permissible values, taking into account their complex impact.

7. Permissible values ​​of man-made negative impacts are ensured by compliance with environmental and safety requirements for technical systems, technologies, as well as the use of eco-bioprotection systems (eco-bioprotection equipment).

8. Eco-bioprotection systems at technical facilities and in technological processes have priority for commissioning and means of monitoring operating modes.

9. Safe and environmentally friendly operation of technical equipment and production is carried out if the qualifications and psychophysical characteristics of the operator meet the requirements of the developer of the technical system and if the operator complies with safety and environmental standards and requirements.