Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Department of Education and Science of the Perm City Administration

Municipal Autonomous educational institution"Lyceum No. 4"

Man-made disasters

Work completed:

Student 8 "A" class

Shcherbakova Katerina

Head: geography teacher

Poluyanova E.V.

Perm 2010

Introduction

Chapter 1. Types of man-made disasters and their causes

1.1 What is a man-made disaster

1.2 Classification of man-made emergencies

1.3 Causes of man-made disasters

1.4 Impact on nature

Chapter 2. Man-made disasters in Russia

2.1 Causes of man-made disasters in Russia

2.2 Accident on Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP as an example of a major man-made disaster in Russia

2.2.1 Physiographic characteristics of the accident

2.2.2 History of the construction of the hydroelectric power station

Chapter 3. Man-made disasters abroad

3.1 Man-made disasters in more developed countries

3.2 Problem nuclear energy in USA

Conclusion

Bibliography

Applications

Introduction

The study of this topic concerns us from a security point of view.

At the dawn of mankind, people were threatened by the dangers of natural phenomena, but later the creator of the dangers became man himself, who was looking for ways to protect against these dangers. At the turn of the 21st century, people are increasingly experiencing the problems that arise when living in a highly industrialized society. Dangerous human intervention in nature has sharply increased, the scope of this intervention has expanded, it has become more diverse and now threatens to become a global danger to humanity. The number of emergencies has doubled over the past 20 years. This means that the number of victims and material damage is growing.

The origin of hazards can be different - natural, man-made, anthropogenic, biological, environmental, social. But I am more interested in man-made disasters, because they are created by man himself and he can prevent them.

On all continents of the Earth, thousands of potentially dangerous objects are operated with such volumes of reserves of radioactive, explosive and toxic substances that, in the event of an emergency, can cause irreparable losses to the environment or even destroy Life on Earth.

Objectives: learn the nature of man-made disasters, name their causes, consequences and impact on our lives. And also compare Russian and American nuclear power plants.

· Find sources on major man-made disasters,

· Explain their causes and consequences.

· Give an example at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric station and consider this case.

· Consider the wear and tear of equipment by industry in Russia.

· Find materials and talk about the development and resumption of nuclear energy in the United States of America.

· Talk about environmental problems near American nuclear power plants and provide relevant figures.

· Make a short forecast for future years and assess the forecasting of man-made disasters.

Literature analysis:

To write this work, a variety of sources were used, such as science articles, popular books, modern encyclopedias and the Internet.

The analysis showed that different specialists in this field have different, sometimes contradictory, answers and assumptions to the same problems. Therefore, I can already now draw a small conclusion that not everything in this area can be proven and has an explanation.

Chapter 1. Types of man-made disasters and their causes

1.1 What is a man-made disaster

A man-made disaster is a consequence of intentional or unintentional human actions (in most cases).

The main causes of accidents and disasters:

· Miscalculations in the design and insufficient level of safety of modern buildings;

· Poor quality construction or deviation from the project;

· Ill-conceived production location;

· Violation of process requirements due to insufficient training or lack of discipline and negligence of personnel.

Depending on the type of production, accident and catastrophe on industrial facilities and transport may be accompanied by explosions, release of chemical substances, release radioactive substances, the occurrence of fires, etc.

1.2 Classification emergency situations technogenic nature

Industrial explosions

Explosion is a process of rapid uncontrolled physical or chemical transformation of a system, accompanied by the transition of its potential energy into mechanical work. In chemical explosions, substances can be solid, liquid, gaseous, as well as airborne flammable substances in the air.

A physical explosion is most often associated with the uncontrolled release of potential energy of compressed gases from closed volumes of machines and devices; the force of the explosion of compressed or liquefied gas depends on the internal pressure of this reservoir.

Fires at industrial facilities

Fire is an uncontrolled combustion process accompanied by destruction. material assets and creating a danger to human life. The causes of fires at industrial facilities can be divided into two groups. The first is a violation fire protection regime or careless handling of fire, the second is a violation of fire safety during the design and construction of buildings. Fires can occur as a result of an explosion in premises or production equipment due to leaks and emergency releases of fire and explosive atmospheres into the volumes of production premises.

There are several different hazards in fires. The first of them is elevated temperatures in the combustion zone. They can lead to thermal burns to the surface of the skin and internal organs of people, as well as cause loss of the load-bearing capacity of building structures of buildings and structures. The second factor is the entry into the air working area a significant amount of harmful combustion products, in most cases leading to acute poisoning of people.

Accidents involving the release (threat of release) of highly toxic substances (STS)

SDYAV are toxic substances circulating in large quantities in industry and transport. chemical substances, capable in the event of destruction (accidents at facilities) to easily pass into the atmosphere and cause mass casualties of people.

Many enterprises use harmful substances, including potent ones, for technological purposes. toxic substances(SDYAV).

Depending on the thermodynamic state of the liquid stored in the container, there are three possible options for the process when the container is depressurized:

At high overheating, the liquid can completely transform into a suspended finely dispersed and vapor state with the formation of toxic, harmful and fire-explosive mixtures;

At low energy parameters of the liquid, it calmly spills onto a solid surface, and evaporation occurs by heat transfer from the solid surface;

An intermediate regime, when at the initial moment a sharp boiling of the liquid occurs with the formation of a finely dispersed fraction, and then a regime of free evaporation occurs at relatively low rates.

Cryoproducts currently used in industry can be divided into three types: neutral cryoproducts (nitrogen, helium), oxidizing cryoproducts (oxygen), flammable cryoproducts (hydrogen, methane). When each of the three types of cryoproducts is released into the atmosphere, its own specific hazards are created in the release zone.

Accidents with release (threat of release) of radioactive substances (RS)

Exposure to radiation leads to the death of living organisms. As a result of radiation infection, radiation sickness develops, which disrupts the genetics of the body. The appearance of radiation is associated with the functioning of enterprises that use radioactive materials, accidents at nuclear installations and the activities of organizations for the processing and disposal of radioactive waste.

Accidents involving the release (threat of release) of biologically hazardous chemicals

Biologically hazardous substances BOM are substances that can cause widespread infectious diseases in humans and animals when they enter the body in negligible quantities. BWs include pathogenic microbes and bacteria that cause various especially dangerous infectious diseases: plague, cholera, smallpox,

anthrax, etc.

Accidents on wastewater treatment plants

In this industry, there are two groups of accidents:

At wastewater treatment plants Wastewater industrial enterprises with an emission of more than 10 tons.

At wastewater treatment plants industrial gases with massive release of pollutants

Danger in volley releases of toxic or toxic substances into the environment naturally has a negative impact on personnel.

1.3 Causes of man-made disasters

Accidents at hydraulic structures

The risk of flooding in low areas occurs when dams, dams and waterworks are destroyed. The immediate danger is the rapid and powerful flow of water, causing damage, flooding and destruction of buildings and structures. Casualties among the population and various destructions occur due to the high speed and the huge amount of running water sweeping away everything in its path.

The height and speed of the breakthrough wave depend on the size of the destruction of the hydraulic structure and the difference in heights in the upper and lower tails. For flat areas, the speed of the breakthrough wave varies from 3 to 25 km/h, in mountainous areas it reaches 100 km/h.

After 15-30 minutes, large areas of the area are usually filled with a layer of water with a thickness of 0.5 to 10 m or more. The time during which territories can be under water ranges from several hours to several days.

For each waterworks there are diagrams and maps that show the boundaries of the flood zone and give a description of the breakthrough wave. The construction of housing and businesses is prohibited in this zone.

In the event of a dam failure, all means are used to notify the population: sirens, television, telephone and public address systems. Having received the signal, you must immediately evacuate to the nearest elevated areas. Stay in a safe place until the water subsides or a message is received that the danger has passed.

When returning to old places Beware of broken wires. Do not consume products that have been in contact with water currents. Do not take water from open wells. Before entering the house, you must carefully inspect it and make sure that there is no danger of destruction. Be sure to check the building before entering. Do not use matches - there may be gas present. Take all measures to dry the building, floors and walls, remove all wet debris.

Transport accidents

Railway emergencies can be caused by train collisions, derailments, fires and explosions.

In the event of a fire, the immediate danger to passengers is fire and smoke, as well as impacts on the structure of the cars, which can lead to bruises, fractures or death.

To reduce the consequences of a possible accident, passengers must strictly follow the rules of conduct on trains.

Emergencies at stations, in tunnels, in subway cars arise as a result of collisions and derailments of trains, fires and explosions, destruction of supporting structures of escalators, detection of foreign objects in cars and at stations that can be classified as explosive, spontaneously combustible and toxic substances, as well as as a result of passengers falling from the platform on the tracks.

Road transport is a source increased danger, and the safety of traffic participants largely depends directly on them.

One of the safety rules is strict compliance with the requirements of road signs. If, despite the measures taken, it is not possible to avoid a traffic accident, then it is necessary to drive the car to the last possible extent, taking all measures to avoid being hit by an oncoming car, that is, turning into a ditch, bush or fence. If this is not feasible, convert the frontal impact into a sliding side impact.

Generalized causes of man-made disasters

1.Plane accidents:

The causes of plane crashes are: engine failure, pilot error, adverse weather conditions, Act of terrorism, collision with a foreign object, hit with a military weapon.

· March 27, 1977 - two Boeing 727s collided on the runway at Tenerife airport in the Canaries. The number of victims is 582.

· January 28, 1986 – spaceship The Challenger exploded immediately after takeoff from Cape Canaveral, USA. Number of victims: 7.

Causes of explosions: human errors and calculations, the presence of poisonous gases, excess explosive dust, storage of old ammunition, ship overload, terrorist acts.

3. Train accidents

Reasons: faulty and overloaded trains.

· July 9, 1918 - two passenger trains collided on the road between Nashville and St. Louis, USA, the worst train accident in the history of the country. The number of victims is 101.

Causes: human error, negligence and malicious intent; earthquakes, wars.

5.Environmental disasters

Reasons: neglect of safety measures, negligence of enterprise personnel, political and administrative ambitions, greed, thoughtless desire to save money and misinformation or complete concealment of information about the disaster.

· December 3, 1984 – Deadly methyl isocyanate gas leaked at a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India.

· January 24, 1991 – Iraq began dumping crude oil from Kuwaiti wells into the sea. The Persian Gulf has become an environmental disaster zone.

1. 4 Impact on nature

By degree potential danger leading to similar disasters in the technogenic sphere of the civil complex, we can highlight objects of the nuclear, chemical, metallurgical and mining industries, unique engineering structures (dams, overpasses, oil and gas storage facilities), transport systems(aerospace, surface and underwater, ground), transporting dangerous goods and large masses of people, main gas and oil product pipelines. This also includes dangerous objects of the defense complex - rocket, space and aircraft systems with nuclear and conventional charges, nuclear submarines and surface vessels, large warehouses of conventional and chemical weapons.

Accidents and disasters at these facilities can be initiated by dangerous natural phenomena- earthquakes, hurricanes, storms. Man-made accidents and disasters themselves may be accompanied by radiation and chemical damage and contamination, explosions, fires, and collapses.

1. Accidents at hydraulic structures (accidents at hydroelectric power stations)

The risk of flooding of low nearby areas due to the destruction of dams, dikes and waterworks. A rapid and powerful flow of water can wash away soils with all vegetation and wash away black soil. There is a danger of mudflows. When the waves are high enough, animals in the area of ​​the flooding site choose high ground and can spend quite a lot of time there.

2. Accidents at nuclear power plants

Hypothetical severe accidents at nuclear power plants could lead to the formation of a “black column”, when emissions from an accident spread into the atmosphere and the soil, plants and animals are most affected by radiation. Animals, like humans, suffer from radiation sickness. Also, the consequences of radiation include inhibition of vegetation growth and a decrease in animal populations in the surrounding areas of the accident. Damaging factors include shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination of the area and electromagnetic pulse. The greatest indirect damage will be observed in populated areas and forests. The light emission of a nuclear explosion is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared emission.

3. Industrial explosions

The most powerful damaging factor is the air shock wave. Its source is high pressure and temperature at the point of explosion. The most dangerous shock wave, this is that the speed of air movement can be more than 100 m/s. In this case, the environment may suffer to varying degrees of severity: direct and indirect.

According to the severity of damage to people from the shock wave, they are divided into: mild with a high-speed pressure = 20-40 kPa (dislocations, bruises); average at speed pressure = 40-60 kPa), (contusions, blood from the nose and ears); severe with a velocity pressure ≥ 60 kPa (severe contusions, damage to hearing and internal organs, loss of consciousness, fractures); lethal at a velocity pressure ≥ 100 kPa. Light radiation from a nuclear explosion can contribute to the outbreak of fire and fire storm, which moves very quickly in dry forest areas.

Chapter 2. Man-made disasters in Russia

2.1 Causes of man-made disasters in Russia

At the beginning of the century, Russian experts started talking about the “2003 problem.” This is like the technical end of the world for Russia. After all, everything - from sewer pipes to oil rigs - was built during the Soviet years. So, it was in 2003, according to the government’s fears, that the maximum deterioration of the entire infrastructure should have occurred, and as a result, numerous disasters with human casualties. But 2003 passed more or less calmly [Appendix 4]. “Black gold” began to rise in price, and petrodollars flowed into the country, but they did not go toward modernizing Russian infrastructure.

As soon as the accident occurred at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station, everyone immediately started talking about the promised collapse of the Soviet foundation.

Immediately after the accident at the hydroelectric power station, Rostekhnadzor rushed to inspect all hydroelectric power stations in the country. They say, now we will find even more violations and prevent future accidents. Although everyone already knows: the situation in the electric power industry is terrifying - up to 80% of the fixed assets of stations are worn out.

At each energy facility, up to 100 insured events occur per year, explained a representative of one of the large insurance companies. - Something constantly breaks down there.

In fact, the first step towards modernizing the electric power industry has already been taken. As a result of the reform of RAO UES of Russia, almost all power plants now have private owners. They pledged to invest up to $400 billion in upgrading stations by 2020. But the crisis prevented their plans.

The coal industry is also closely related to energy. We all remember the methane explosions at the Ulyanovskaya and Yubileinaya mines, which claimed the lives of 150 miners in 2007. Then the cause of the accident was the same pursuit of money. The operators who monitored the security system turned a blind eye to technical issues. They simply did not want to stop the operation of the mine, because their salary depended on it. And the owners are much more interested in money than in people’s lives. And the security system was the latest. But she didn't help.

One of the oldest industries in Russia is metallurgy. The depreciation of its funds is about 80% [Appendix 1]. But the situation has begun to change dramatically in recent years. Metal prices have increased. In addition, Western car factories appeared in Russia itself. And they have completely different requirements for the quality of steel. So metallurgists had to urgently invest in new technologies so as not to lose customers. However, the industry’s problem has still not been fundamentally solved.

The situation is the same in aviation. The old “carcasses” still faithfully serve the Russians. But the high price of oil (and therefore expensive jet fuel) made them unprofitable.

The difference in fuel consumption between the Tu-154 and Boeing or Airbus is almost twofold, says Oleg Panteleev, head analytical department AviaPort agency. - Many airlines could no longer operate aircraft built in the 1970s and 1980s. In the mid-2000s, our airlines began to purchase, first, used foreign cars, and now brand new foreign aircraft.

Now, according to the expert, our aircraft fleet is comparable in wear and tear to the American one, although it lags behind the European one. And age in itself does not directly affect flight safety.

The total length of Russian roads is 746 thousand km. But it’s not even a matter of quantity, but of quality. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, 35% of road accidents occur precisely because of bad roads.

The main problem is that it is not profitable for the authorities to build roads that last forever.

According to the economist, market technologies in the road sector will not work in our country. Therefore, it is necessary to take the administrative route: to put officials under strict conditions, both in terms of price and quality of the roads being built, so that they do not require repairs for at least 10 years, and not 1 - 2, as now.

According to statistics, in 80% of accidents the cause is found to be human factor. What guided those who operated the turbine at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station, and those who monitored the methane content in the mine, and those who checked the plane before takeoff, and even those who, having noticed violations at the facility, chose to disagree with the company’s management peace and on mutually beneficial terms. Planes crash, factories burn, and stations explode mainly because of the people who operate and control them. That is, in addition to the modernization of technology, we, apparently, also need a modernization of consciousness, but this will cost more...

2.2 The accident at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station as an example of a major man-made disaster in Russia

2.2.1 Physiographic characteristics of the accident area

Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station named after. P.S. Neporozhnego is the most powerful power plant in Russia, the sixth most powerful hydroelectric power station in the world. Located on the Yenisei River, in the village of Cheryomushki (Khakassia), near Sayanogorsk. Coordinates of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station: 52°49′34″ N. w..91°22′17″ h. 52.826111° s. latitude 91.371389° east d.

When creating the reservoir, 35.6 thousand hectares of farmland were flooded and 2,717 buildings were moved. In the area of ​​the reservoir there is the Sayano-Shushensky Biosphere Reserve.

33,000,000 m³ of soil and rock were moved by hydraulic builders during the construction of the giant dam at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station. The concrete laid during the construction of the dam would be enough to build a highway from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok.

Geological structure: undivided Paleozoic and Cambrian system (Paleozoic era) are present

Lithospheric plates: located at the junction of 4 lithospheric plates, in a zone of seismic activity (earthquakes of magnitude 7, regarded as very strong)

Tectonic structure: large faults in the earth's crust between the Baikal folding (1200-520 million years) and the Caledonian folding (460-400 million years).

Climate: average temperature in January - 20˚С, July +18˚С, located in the temperate zone in the mountainous region of Altai and Sayan. Annual precipitation is 400-600mm. The number of days with snow cover is 120-160 per year, 60-70 cm is the average height of snow cover. The humidification coefficient is greater than one (humid humidification zone - annual precipitation exceeds evaporation). The ratio of precipitation in the warm (IV-IX) and cold (X-III) periods: precipitation in the warm period exceeds precipitation in the cold period by less than 2 times. Agroclimatic zone according to the provision of heat to plants: temperate zone (farming in the warm season), growing mid-early crops (wheat, later varieties of legumes, sugar beets). The sum of air temperatures for the period with temperatures above 10˚C: 1600-2200˚C.

Water: absence of lakes and swamps, high floods, high waters and floods, heavily polluted section of the Yenisei River, a reservoir is present due to anthropogenic changes in the river network. Annual flow is 600-800mm, snow-fed rivers, May flood. Freezing and opening of the river: the date of the beginning of freeze-up is the tenth of November, the date of the beginning of ice drift is the twentieth of April. IN winter period the influx of water into the reservoir is minimal, and if the volume of water discharge is kept no lower than the current level (it is actually 2 times higher than the volume of water discharge when the hydroelectric power station operates in normal mode), then by June 2010 it will be possible to reduce the reservoir level by half (this will guarantee more safe condition of the dam for the population)

Land resources: pastures with significant areas of arable land, arable land with areas of natural forage lands. Soils: sod-podzolic, sod-humus-carbonate and gley, leached and latent chernozems. Zone of possible occurrence of soil erosion, erosion hazard factor - melt and rain water.

Vegetation. Forest-steppe: meadow steppes in combination with forests (oak, birch, larch, pine), dark coniferous forests (spruce, fir, cedar).

Animal world. Fur resources: mink, ermine. Fish resources: endemic distribution of fish (Altai osman), Siberian distribution (whitefish, char, taimen, pike, burbot, lenok, grayling, Siberian sturgeon, cyprinid perch).

Natural and cultural heritage: Caucasian national park with an area of ​​about 100 hectares (70 animals, 242 birds, 1735 plants).

Peoples: Russians, Ukrainians (Slavic group), Khakass (Altai family; Turkic group), Germans (Germanic group).

2.2.2 History of the construction of the Hydroelectric Power Plant

People first started thinking about building a powerful power station in the upper reaches of the Yenisei back in the early 30s. Here, at the end of the so-called Sayan corridor, gigantic energy reserves were accumulated. That is why it was planned to build a cascade of 12 hydroelectric power stations on the Siberian river, with a total capacity of 18 million kilowatts. It was planned to begin construction immediately after the commissioning of the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station. Exploration work was actively carried out throughout the river basin, with the goal of finding the most convenient place for the construction of the first power plant on the Yenisei. But neither in the thirties, nor in the subsequent forties were these plans destined to come true - the Patriotic War forced to postpone all big projects “for later”. And only three decades later, after the start of construction of the Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric power station, prospectors returned to the Sayans again.

In the 60s of the last century, the management of the 7th expedition of the Leningrad Institute "Lengidroproekt" was located in the village. Maina. Here, on November 4, 1961, the head of the expedition, Pyotr Erashov, signed an order to begin survey work to select a site for the future Sayan hydroelectric power station. This is where the history of Sayanogorsk began.

Over the course of several years, prospectors examined more than 20 sections, over 600 kilometers from Abakan, to the confluence of the Big and Small Yenisei. For various reasons, all of them were discarded and more detailed reconnaissance began at three sites - Joysky, Karlovsky and Kibiksky. Geologists had to carefully examine the bottom of the Yenisei at all three sections - the weight of the future dam was supposed to be not even thousands, but many millions of tons. Its dimensions were already difficult to imagine: the height was more than 240 meters, the length along the ridge was a kilometer.

Now the Hydroelectric Power Plant is again in a precarious condition. What can happen if you imagine for even a second that the dam will break under the pressure of ice?

The spillway erodes the base of the dam (there is nothing like it anywhere in the world; water falls at an angle of 60 degrees from a height of 200 meters)

This winter, in the mountains of Khakassia (the catchment area of ​​the SShHPP), an amount of snow has accumulated equal to annual rate precipitation. This could cause a huge flood with an influx of up to 30-40 thousand cubic meters per second, which will inevitably lead to the destruction of the dam.

A breakthrough of the SSH hydroelectric power station will cause a man-made tsunami that has no analogues in world history. Water speeds can reach hundreds of miles per hour, and wave heights can reach 200 meters. In a few hours, 30 cubic kilometers of water from the Sayano-Shushenskoye reservoir will be emptied. The Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric power station, not designed for water hammer, will also not withstand the load and collapse. To the extra 30 cubic kilometers of the tsunami, another 70 km of the Krasnoyarsk reservoir will be added. The water will wash away cities, fields, forests to the rocky foundation. In some places, even hills and rocks will be washed away. About 1.5 million people live in the catastrophic tsunami zone - this is the geographical center of Russia.

But in addition to the catastrophic consequences for Russia, the breakthrough of the SSHPP will become a global environmental disaster for the Arctic and the whole world and all countries of the northern hemisphere of the Earth. On the territory of the Krasnoyarsk Territory of Russia, in the tsunami flood zone, there are several aluminum plants, cattle burial grounds with anthrax, chemical burial sites, nuclear burial sites, as well as a very dangerous chemical plant.

Over the course of several days, 100 cubic km of contaminated water poured out from the mouth of the Yenisei first enters the western current along the northern coast of Russia, then this current turns north, then west to Spitsbergen. The flow of the Spitsbergen Current carries it to the north of Greenland, and there it enters the East Greenland Current, which will carry polluted water into the Atlantic and to the coasts of Canada and the USA.

The ingress of such an amount of water over a short period of time will cause irreversible consequences for the delicate ecosystem of the Arctic; fish will become infected, which will lead to the extinction of some species of Arctic mammals that are already on the verge of extinction. And after a while, surface ocean currents will bring all the problems to the east coast of North America. Chernobyl and Vietnam will seem like mere jokes compared to what threatens to happen in the near future.

Let's make a small comparison of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station with the Hoover Dam:

Dam Length, m Base width, m Crest width, m Height, m ​​Hoover 379 200 15 221, SSh hydroelectric power station 1074 105 25 245

The Hoover Dam is a unique hydraulic structure in the United States, a 221 m high concrete dam and hydroelectric power station built in the lower reaches of the Colorado River. Located in the Black Canyon, on the border of Arizona and Nevada, 48 km southeast of Las Vegas; forms Lake Mead. Named in honor of Herbert Hoover, the 31st President of the United States, who played an important role in its construction. Construction of the dam began in 1931 and ended in 1936, two years ahead of schedule.

The Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station is (was?) the most powerful power plant in Russia, capacity - 6400 MW. Profitability is 2.5 times higher than the profitability of thermal power plants.

The most powerful source of covering peak power surges in the Unified Energy System of Russia and Siberia. 75% of the hydroelectric power plant's electricity is consumed by the Sayanogorsk aluminum smelter; in 2006, the Khakass aluminum smelter was put into operation to use the plant's energy, which was not used due to limited power transmission lines. At 8:13-8:30 local time on August 17, 2009, an accident occurred at the station at hydraulic unit No. 2 with its destruction and large quantity water into the machine room. Also received severe damage units No. 7 and No. 9, the turbine hall building partially collapsed, its structures overwhelmed units No. 3, No. 4 and No. 5. As a result of the accident, 75 people died.

According to the head of the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations, Sergei Shoigu, restoration of the units of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station after the accident that occurred on August 17, 2009 may take years.

According to Vasily Zubakin, acting general director of RusHydro, full recovery The Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP may take about three years and 10 billion rubles. Valentin Stafievsky, member of the emergency response team, former Chief Engineer station, expressed his opinion about what happened: “I have more than fifty years of experience in the hydropower industry, I worked and participated in the construction of the largest Krasnoyarsk and Sayan power plants in the country, my whole life was spent here, but I came here on the first day and could not believe your eyes that this is even possible. This is not an accident, but a tragedy. I assure you that there have been no such accidents either in the world or in our country. It does not fit into any emergency scenarios that we have previously described.” Rostekhnadzor now considers the main version of the cause of the accident to be the extreme operating modes of hydraulic unit No. 2: the automatic braking systems of the hydraulic unit and the system for automatically closing the valves that shut off the water did not work. Russian Energy Minister Sergei Shmatko said the causes of the accident remain unclear. “The weight of the torn turbine cover is 800 tons, and we do not understand the nature of this phenomenon,” he said.

According to preliminary data, the accident was not caused by personnel errors or the so-called human factor. The station had three levels of automatic protection. The first level was supposed to automatically reduce the turbine speed. The second involved turning the blades, limiting the closure of emergency water conduits to the flow of water from the conduit to the turbines. The third level of the upper pool (the part of the reservoir adjacent to the dam). None of these automatic systems worked, and the shutters were closed manually tens of minutes after the accident began. As a result of the accident, a number of strategic facilities in the region were completely or partially disconnected from power supply: the Sayan Aluminum Smelter, the Khakass Aluminum Smelter, the Krasnoyarsk Aluminum Smelter, the Kuznetsk Ferroalloy Plant, the Novokuznetsk Aluminum Smelter, and also disrupted the power supply in the Siberian regions: in the Altai Territory, Kemerovo region, Republic of Khakassia and Tomsk.

If the electrolyzers freeze, then aluminum production is a complex and by no means quick matter. It is extremely difficult to restore them.

Now, due to the fact that the underproduction of energy from the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP will have to be compensated by the production of coal-fired thermal power plants, including additional loading of low-efficiency facilities, such as Krasnoyarskaya GRES-2 and Nazarovskaya GRES, the structure of the balance of primary sources will significantly affect electricity tariffs.

According to RusHydro Sales Director Evgeniy Desyatov, the company plans to shift part of the unforeseen costs to consumers by increasing the tariff for 2010, and is already preparing a new application to the Federal Tariff Service.

Currently, the head of Rostechnadzor said that the work automatic system control of the hydraulic unit was incorrect, and the version about water hammer, as well as the version about external influence, which were previously considered as possible reasons accidents are currently not confirmed.

Let's take a deeper look.

It's no secret that RAO ES practically did not finance organizations that were involved in diagnostics of equipment in the industry. The technical department at RAO UES of Russia was liquidated about seven years ago, as were the positions of chief engineers of regional energy systems under Chubais.

Experts have long warned about in emergency condition- look at the dams of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station. The newspaper "Kommersant" on April 11, 1998 - published an article entitled "Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP is dangerous", in this article the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP, with reference to the forecast of the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations, is called a "potentially dangerous object":

“The design of this station has undergone dangerous changes. The consequences of a dam failure can be catastrophic, especially for Krasnoyarsk. The fact that the dam is clearly dysfunctional is recognized by everyone; The discrepancies relate to assessments of the degree of danger and the current state of the hydroelectric power station. RAO UES (the owner of the station) declares full control over the situation and believes that only routine repairs are necessary. Independent experts, on the contrary, talk about irreversible changes to the dam that threaten its destruction.”

And here is a book published in 1999, “From the experience of creating and developing the Krasnoyarsk and Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power stations” (Krasnoyarsk, Publishing House"Surikov") Written by the former general director of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station, Valentin Bryzgalov.

In a book written ten years ago, Valentin Bryzgalov admits that the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station was experimental in nature (by the way, the state commission officially accepted it - it was at this time that Valentin Bryzgalov put the station into operation only in 2000, he left the management of the station). Over the years of its operation, several dozen disruptions to the operation of hydraulic turbines and damage to their components occurred.

In particular: “the first four units of the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP (i.e., including No. 2) experienced quite strong vibration effects due to working with non-design pressures. As a result, the fatigue strength turned out to be insufficient at a number of components. At the same time, defects associated with insufficient preliminary full-scale study of individual phenomena and new design developments were revealed. In some cases, the uncompromising desire to reduce metal costs per kilowatt of installed capacity had an impact.”

And here it is specifically:

“The study of the causes of destruction through full-scale tests showed that for radial-axial hydraulic turbines, inaccurate geometry during the manufacture of impellers leads to greater hydraulic imbalance. Based on the operating experience of hydraulic unit No. 2, the most unfavorable in this regard, with a replaceable impeller, the possibility of forces on the turbine bearing exceeding the calculated value was recognized ... "

In his book, Bryzgalov notes the increased vertical vibration of the turbine cover of the hydraulic unit.

The disaster could have been prevented ten years ago, but it was clear that the accident might not have happened.

According to RusHydro, hydraulic unit No. 2 was stopped on January 14 this year for “medium repairs with surfacing of the impeller.” After repairs, which lasted two months, hydraulic unit No. 2 was put into operation.

Feature of the repair: in addition to replacing process automation devices, the control column in the control system was replaced for the first time on hydraulic unit No. 2.

The work was carried out by specialists from JSC Gidroenergoremont. The reconstruction of automated control systems was carried out by the Rakurs research and production association from St. Petersburg. The EGR column was replaced by specialists from the St. Petersburg company Promavtomatika.

And here are excerpts from the forum where local residents who worked at the hydroelectric station discussed what happened. Quotes:

“In the spring of 2009, GA-2 was put into operation after a major overhaul and, accordingly, GA-6 went into overhaul. Almost immediately after commissioning it became clear that the unit was faulty. The unit must be stopped again and taken out for repairs. And this is a loss of money and lost profit from the reduction in electricity production at the station. The unit continues to operate with increased temperature and vibration."

“For several months in a row (before the disaster), memos were written about the overheating of GA-2.”

“... Fluctuations of two millimeters just before destruction” (maximum permissible norm).

“When Shoigu called this accident unique, he didn’t even realize how right he was. Because only in Russia can they deliberately operate a faulty hydraulic unit at a high-pressure hydroelectric power station for several months to please the financial interests of individual people..."

But it's even more interesting

“Due to the vibration caused by the unsynchronized operation of the propeller blades (controlled by the automated process control system, which was installed by Racurs and Promavtomatika in March), on Friday, i.e. 08/14/09, a decision to stop the propulsion unit-2 was discussed in the evening, but on Monday, the shutdown of GA-2 is postponed with a transition to the most optimal mode in terms of vibration and EE output.

On Sunday, 16.08, in the afternoon, vibration becomes too obvious even in those modes that were optimal on Friday. But important guests were expected at the hydroelectric station. The data from the sensors is very inconsistent, but who will talk about this before the guests arrive? On the night of August 16-17, the vibrations become terrifying. At six o'clock on Monday morning they raise the management turbine shop. In the morning, a reinforced squad of cleaners arrives at the station to bring shine and shine, and a double team of mechanics and repairmen is to look after the restive GA-2.

Further, during the passage of the “prohibited work zone,” the new St. Petersburg automatic system malfunctions like an avalanche, which gives the command to close the equipment. A column of moving water (360 cubic meters per second) in the water conduit sharply rests against the closing blades ON...

Its manufacturers were not involved in repair work on hydraulic unit elements that critically affect the reliability of the entire machine.

Equipment for the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP was supplied by the Leningrad Metal Plant and Elektrosila, now part of the Power Machines concern. “The supply of hydraulic units for the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP began more than 30 years ago. Unit No. 1 and Unit No. 2 of the station were commissioned in 1978 and 1979, respectively. According to technical specialists from OJSC Power Machines, the first hydraulic unit has already exhausted its service life and requires replacement.

At the same time, Power Machines noted that since 1993, the concern’s specialists have not been involved in the operation and repair of hydraulic equipment at the station.

It's simple, it's a matter of outdated equipment:

1) hydraulic unit No. 1 has exhausted its service life;

2) there were several months left until the full service life of hydraulic unit No. 2 (designed to comply with Soviet operating and maintenance standards);

3) for 16 years, repairs and maintenance of the station’s hydraulic units were carried out without control from the manufacturer;

4) Power Machines engineers did not take part in the implementation of the new automated control system, which was completed a couple of days before the accident.

Visual illustration: automated system Technological Process Management of the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP has preserved an archive of data on the operation of the station before the accident.

We remembered this nine days after the tragedy. Moreover, this was not stated by RusHydro, not by the state commission, but by the developers of the system.

Power Machines is ready to begin supplying hydraulic units in 2011. The volume of supplies will be clear after analysis technical condition station equipment. So far, the management of the hydroelectric power station says that all ten power units were affected by the accident. Experts note that Power Machines, which manufactured all the hydraulic units of the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP, is the only company capable of producing new equipment in a fairly prompt manner. In this case, Power Machines will most likely have to sacrifice its own modernization program. What is the cost of manufacturing destroyed units? At least four need to be completely replaced, and not just No. 2. Nobody will give this amount to Power Machines.

Now OJSC Power Machines supplies equipment to the La Yesca hydroelectric power station in Mexico. Mexican turbines are much weaker than needed for the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station. They require simpler technologies and smaller areas.

It is necessary to restore not just a single enterprise, but several industries at once. In addition, due to Mexico, Power Machines will have virtually no free production capacity until 2012 inclusive

And they still have to supply 9 hydraulic turbines to the Boguchanskaya HPP, the contract is valid until 2012.

What methods to solve the problem: State regulation and management. This recipe is confirmed by all world practice: not a single crisis has yet been overcome by liberal methods or stopped due to the action of the notorious “invisible hand of the market.” Moreover, it is now necessary to restore everything as a whole: secondary, special and higher education; scientific institutes and design laboratories, etc., and not just factories. An era of man-made disasters is coming, caused not only by the complete exhaustion of the resource of “Soviet” technology, but also by the conscious evil will of Russia’s external and internal enemies. There is an urgent need to rebuild public administration for the coming era - the era of man-made disasters.

Chapter 3. Man-made disasters abroad

3.1 Man-made disasters in more developed countries

The International Center for Research on Disaster Epidemic (CRED) has been compiling a database of various disasters for several decades. An event is considered a disaster if it meets at least one of four criteria: 10 or more people were killed, 100 or more people were injured, local authorities declared a state of emergency, and or the affected state sought international assistance. Statistics show that the number of man-made disasters in the world has increased sharply since the late 1970s. Particularly frequent transport accidents, primarily sea and river. At the same time, despite the fact that the countries of Europe and North America have a much denser transport and industrial infrastructure than other continents, greatest number The victims of these disasters live in Africa and Asia. According to CRED, the mortality rate as a result of man-made disasters that occurred during the period from 1994 to 2003 in industrialized countries is 0.9 deaths per 1 million inhabitants, for the least developed countries it is more than three times higher - 3.1 deaths by 1 million

In the documentation of the UN and the International Center for Epidemic Disaster Research, man-made disasters are usually divided into three main types: “industrial” (chemical contamination, explosions, radiation contamination, destruction caused by other reasons), “transport” (accidents in the air, sea, railways etc.) and “mixed” (occur at other objects).

Thus, during the period from 1901 to 2007, 1,125 industrial disasters occurred in the world. As a result, about 4.5 million people suffered, approximately 49 thousand died. General damage from this type of man-made disaster is estimated at $225 billion (at the US dollar exchange rate for 2006). Most often, this type of disaster occurred in Asia (651 cases). The European (199) and American (177) continents are seriously lagging behind (in the Center's database, North and South America are considered one continent).

During the same period, 4,102 transport accidents were recorded worldwide. They affected the lives of about 110 thousand people. There were many more deaths than victims - 194.4 thousand. The total direct damage is estimated at $58 billion. Such disasters are most common in Asia (1,694) and Africa (115).

“Mixed” disasters are the rarest. Over 106 years, 1085 events of this kind were recorded. Most often they occurred in Asia (523) and America (220). As a result, 3.1 million people were injured and about 59 thousand died. Damage is estimated at $4.2 billion.

According to the International Center for Epidemic Disaster Research, the mortality rate as a result of man-made disasters that occurred during the period from 1994 to 2007 in industrialized countries is 0.8 deaths per 1 million inhabitants, for the least developed countries it is four times higher - 3.2 deaths cases per 1 million people.

According to insurance company Swiss Re, there were 213 man-made disasters in 2006. In order for an event to reach catastrophic proportions and be entered into the company's database, it must meet one of the following criteria: damage must be at least $80 million (in the case of an aviation accident - $32.2 million, transport - $16 million. ), at least 20 people should die or go missing, 50 should be injured, 2 thousand should lose their housing.

In 2006, the most frequent accidents occurred on maritime transport(53 cases), passenger ships (43), major fires and explosions (42 cases), accidents at industrial enterprises (21), aircraft accidents (18). In total, man-made disasters in 2006 claimed 8.7 thousand lives; the most victims were caused by disasters at sea (3.9 thousand), aviation accidents (more than 940), as well as fires and explosions (more than 900). The total damage from man-made disasters amounted to $4 billion.

According to the consulting firm Risk Management Solutions, in recent decades the number of major man-made disasters has consistently exceeded the number of natural disasters, although natural disasters cause much more damage. Typically, damage from man-made disasters does not exceed 20% of the amount of losses caused by natural disasters. It is curious that in 2003-2006 the number of man-made disasters was many times greater than the number of natural ones. At the same time, if humanity has more or less adapted to natural disasters, and the number of their victims periodically decreases, then the mortality rate from man-made disasters has been steadily increasing all this time.

3.2 The problem of nuclear energy in the USA

Nuclear power in the United States was born in the 1950s and 1960s based on unreasonable calculations and, as it turned out, unattainable targets at a cost so low that it would be "too cheap to measure." As the first nuclear power plants were built and operated, they began to experience growing pains construction costs and ensuring security. The culmination was an accident at the second power unit of the Three Mile Island station near Middletown (Pennsylvania) in 1979.

The accident at Three Mile Island put an end to plans to build over a hundred new nuclear power plants in the United States. Over the past 30 years, not a single order has been placed for the construction of new reactors. The policy of the current US administration is also not favorable to orders for the construction of nuclear power plants. Currently, about 20% of American electricity is generated by nuclear reactors, however, this figure will steadily decline due to the lack of state support for the construction of new nuclear power plants that could replace old power units. The mass decommissioning of old reactors is expected to begin in the next decade.

Subsequent adjustments by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to ensure safe operation delayed completion of the plants' initial construction for many years during a time of high inflation and caused the bankruptcies and closures of several nuclear power plants. Thus ended the first era of American nuclear energy.

During the 1980s, nuclear power companies completed construction of many of the remaining plants, brought them online, and focused on improving economic efficiency and performance, which simultaneously improves safety. By the mid- to late-1990s, 103 nuclear power plants in the United States produced 20 percent of American electricity

Today, more than half of those exploited nuclear power plants in the United States they achieved an extension of their initially 40-year licenses for another 20 years. The industry fully expects all US stations to apply for such renewals when their original licenses expire. Because of this extension, these large capital assets will continue to produce electricity and Americans will continue to enjoy their financial and environmental benefits.

As we complete the second era of nuclear power, an era of financial recovery and renewed security, nuclear power is poised to make an even greater contribution to meeting American and global energy needs. This recovery will be driven in part by growing concerns about the nation's energy security and rising costs of imported fossil fuels, a significant increase in the demand for energy to fuel our economic prosperity, increased attention to eliminating the environmental threats associated with burning fossil fuels, and the transition to nuclear power, not producing emissions, as well as very favorable electricity market conditions for low-cost nuclear energy.

Public confidence in the operation of nuclear power plants has consistently increased with a better understanding of the economic and environmental benefits and improved safety performance. Some polls show that 70 percent of Americans favor continuing to operate existing plants, while more than 50 percent support building new ones.

Regarding the safety of nuclear power plants, 71% consider them safe and reliable.

Today, 440 nuclear power plants generate electricity to meet 16 percent of the world's needs. Active construction programs for new nuclear power plants have been launched, especially in Eastern Europe, Russia and India. The United States itself is on the verge of resuming the construction of new nuclear power plants after the process was frozen for more than 25 years. The third era begins - the renaissance of nuclear energy.

In 2001, the US government issued guidance on a new energy policy that set the country on course to expand the use of nuclear energy in the near future by making the processes for renewing operating licenses for existing nuclear power plants and obtaining licenses for the construction of new nuclear facilities more efficient. The new energy policy further sought to stimulate the use of nuclear energy through the development, demonstration and deployment of next generation nuclear energy technologies. Importantly, it aimed to achieve this goal through research and development of advanced fuel cycles that may be cleaner, more efficient, less waste-intensive, and safer to distribute than disposable nuclear fuel, which requires geological disposal of spent fuel.

On August 8, 2005, President George W. Bush signed the Energy Policy Act of 2005, which authorizes long-term budgets for these programs, including loan guarantees, production tax credits, and private investment protections for the construction of the first few new nuclear power plants (these plants face risks associated with the new licensing process and the rebuilding of American design and construction infrastructure). The law further provides funding for long-term nuclear energy research and development programs, including the Generation IV Advanced Reactor Development Program and the Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, which together grew into the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership.

The next generation nuclear plant is based on gas cooling technology, which can be used at temperatures from 850 to 950 degrees Celsius with a significantly higher thermal efficiency for electricity generation, but especially in the temperature range capable of providing efficient production hydrogen. Efficient, emissions-free hydrogen production is a critical element of President Bush's efforts to replace increasingly expensive imported oil with hydrogen as a fuel for domestic transportation—initially for the upgrading of heavy domestic crude oil, but subsequently for the production of synthetic transportation fuels and, ultimately, for creation of fuel cell vehicles. It is therefore important that the next generation of nuclear power can not only generate electricity, but also produce hydrogen for the transportation sector and heat for industrial processes - areas in which the United States' heavy dependence on imported oil poses a threat to our economic prosperity.

We are on the cusp of a nuclear energy renaissance, based on the continued safe and economical operation of America's 103 nuclear power plants. This is evidenced by the announcement of several orders expected in the near future for the construction and operation of new nuclear power plants over the next 10 years.

Nuclear power supplies electricity to one in five US homes or businesses. Carbon-free sources provide about a third of the country's electricity, with about 70% of that clean electricity produced by nuclear power plants.

Question: Is it possible to compare the environmental movements of the United States and Russia?

The American environmental movement is much larger than the Russian one. This is not surprising, since in Russia this movement is quite young, it appeared only during perestroika. Nowadays there are a significant number of organizations, both federal level, and in regions and individual cities. Russia is a huge country, and there are problems with communications and transport for environmental activists. This is probably why Russian environmental organizations are not as closely connected with each other as in the United States.

Creation of an institute as a way to solve problems of nuclear power plants

INPO is the US Institute of Nuclear Plant Operations, an independent industry institute.

The Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), located in Atlanta, was created after the famous accident at TMI-2. At its origins stood influential figures in the industry who sought Congress to adopt atomic laws, as well as the formation, with the participation of the government, of training centers for nuclear power plant personnel.

INPO publishes manuals on the construction of units, prepares proposals on personnel training methods, as well as on the licensing procedure for new nuclear power units.

The influence of the institute, which now employs 390 people, is enormous. In two years, its National Nuclear Training Academy conducted half a million classes for 85,000 people in various sectors of the nuclear industry. Every two years, INPO produces its own assessments of the operation of American nuclear power plants, and they are more stringent than similar conclusions of regulators.

But in the United States there is another problem related to nuclear energy, which this institute will not solve.

Childhood leukemia near nuclear power plants

A recent meta-analysis by Baker and Hoel (2007) documented a consistent increase in leukemia incidence and mortality in children, especially those younger than 10 years, in the vicinity of nuclear power plants. Although a consistent relationship between dose and outcome was not found, the results warrant further investigation. properly wider research. The report deepens research into the effects of low-dose radiation and the risk of childhood leukemia that began in the late 1950s, when leukemia deaths under 10 years of age were documented to nearly double from perinatal X-ray exposure.

What is leukemia? This is a clonal malignant (neoplastic) disease of the hematopoietic system, in other words, blood cancer. The works cited by the authors show that more up-to-date data are needed. Of the 17 meta-analysis papers, 12 were published before 1994, which raises the question of whether the data obtained correctly reflect the current picture of childhood leukemia. Only one of the studies examined American nuclear power plants, despite the fact that almost a quarter of all reactors in the world were built in the United States.

This report examines cancer mortality rates near US reactors that began operating before 1982, before and after opening, but stops at 1984 data.

The availability of historical mortality data on the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website allows this study to be updated. A previous study conducted by the US National Cancer Institute provided data on childhood leukemia mortality (ages 0-9 and 10-19 years) in the area of ​​51 nuclear power plants. It used the Standard Mortality Ratio (SMR), which is defined as the ratio of local to national mortality, to analyze temporal changes in the area of ​​nuclear power plants after they opened. (One or two counties closest to each nuclear power plant were selected as the local area.) It is now possible to examine any changes in CVS from childhood leukemia depending on the age of the nuclear power plant. Appendix 6 compares levels for two periods: the first - from the year after the launch of the nuclear power plant until 1984, the second - from 1985 to 2004. These 51 nuclear power plants are also divided into 3 categories: older nuclear power plants (opened in 1957-1970 and still operating), newer nuclear power plants (opened in 1971-1981 and still operating) and closed nuclear power plants. Local areas consist of 67 counties with a current population of about 25 million people (about 8% of the total in the United States).

We see the same picture: CV risk from childhood leukemia is increasing, and in the last 20 years it is higher than before for nuclear power plants that continue to operate. The greatest changes occurred in the area of ​​the oldest nuclear power plants; SMR for children 0-19 years old increased by 13.9% from 0.986 to 1.123 (P< 0,02). Области вблизи более новых АЭС имеют меньший прирост, на 9,4% (ССС с 0,897 до 0,981, погрешность статистически незначима). Для обеих групп станций ССС возрастала быстрее для группы 10-19 лет по сравнению с группой 0-10 лет; эта картина противоположна сведениям Бейкера и Хоэля. В районах, близких к закрытым АЭС имело место незначительное уменьшение ССС с 1,028 до 0,971. За последние два десятилетия имели место 1037 смертей от детской лейкемии вблизи действующих АЭС, по сравнению с 255 вблизи закрытых.

Contemporary (1985-2004) local mortality from childhood leukemia near the oldest US nuclear power plants is above the general American rate (SMR > 1.00), while near newer ones it is lower (SMR< 1,00). Вполне правдоподобно, что большие выбросы радиоизотопов в окружающую среду с более старых АЭС объясняет наблюдаемые тенденции, нужно осмотрительно интерпретировать данные. Между двумя группами могут быть демографические отличия, включающие факторы, влияющие на риск смертности, такие как бедность, близость к медицинскому оборудованию и наличие других загрязнителей окружающей среды. Также с осторожностью нужно исследовать результаты для областей вблизи закрытых реакторов. Вполне возможно, что уменьшившиеся после закрытия выбросы связаны с уменьшением смертности от детской лейкемии, но другие факторы, которые могут приводить в замешательство, должны быть приняты во внимание.

Thanks to significant therapeutic advances over the past few decades, survival rates for childhood leukemia are among the highest for all cancers in developed countries. Mortality has decreased significantly while morbidity has increased. In the United States, childhood leukemia mortality and incidence rates changed by -49.0% and +28.7%, respectively, between 1975 and 2004. There are now seven cases of childhood leukemia diagnosed for every death each year (Ries et al. 1975-2004). Analysis of the latest data on mortality from childhood leukemia near nuclear power plants can reflect both the results of radioactive radiation and the effectiveness of treatment courses, and other factors. While future studies should include data on both morbidity and mortality, it is the dynamics of morbidity in the vicinity of nuclear power plants that may provide more meaningful data. In addition, since cancer departments obtain data over a longer period, it may help to further study the time trends of this disease near nuclear power plants.

Conclusion

At the end of my essay, I will summarize the work I have done.

In the course of my work, I achieved the goals and objectives I set at the beginning of the essay. I explained the causes and consequences of man-made disasters, examined the accident at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station as an example of the largest man-made disaster in Russia, and examined man-made disasters abroad.

The results of the physical and geographical characteristics of the area of ​​the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power plant accident were: the hydroelectric power station is located in the junction zone of four moving lithospheric plates and in a zone of seismic activity. From the history of the construction of this dam, it is known that at the time of choosing this location for the future hydroelectric power station, they knew the seismicity of the area and its tectonic characteristics, and still decided to build a powerful enterprise in a dangerous area. The physical nature of the area is rich in forest, soil and water resources. In the event of a major catastrophe at a hydroelectric power station, this wealth will be erased by flows of water and carried away towards the flood.

I made many conclusions for myself.

This is that in more developed countries, where there is, accordingly, more technology, there are fewer cases of man-made accidents and disasters than in underdeveloped countries, where there is not so much technology, the number of disasters is much greater, all due to the fact that in pre-industrial countries there are less modern equipment does not provide for increased safety measures, or outdated equipment is not capable, for example, of withstanding an earthquake of magnitude 5 or 6. The situation is the same with poor countries.

As for Russia, a large percentage of the country's equipment was built in Soviet time[Appendix 3], and each equipment has its own service life. Does this mean that the era of man-made disasters is coming? What is the asking price? 2 trillion $ - this amount will cost the large-scale modernization of Russia.

But, in addition to replacing old equipment with new ones. According to statistics, the human factor is recognized in 80% of man-made disasters. This means that something needs to change in people’s minds. If we convey to every person how important it is to bear responsibility for technology, this means responsibility for people’s lives. Perhaps if people take care of the safety of other people rather than their own benefit and profit, and create more improved and safer enterprises, then the number of man-made disasters will decrease significantly.

Now new, mostly experimental, equipment units are being introduced in Russia. And all this is a huge risk not only for people, but also for nature, and therefore all our resources. Russia is rich in natural resources, this is no secret. But if we now pollute the soil, pollute the waters and contaminate the air with radiation and chemical waste, our planet is unlikely to thank us.

At the moment, ideally, every person living next to any enterprise or plant that is dangerous in the event of a cataclysm or disaster should know evacuation routes and safety measures, as well as the actions that he will take in the event of an unforeseen situation. Unfortunately, this rarely happens. In reality, people in such cases are seized with panic and inaction begins. Therefore, I think it is better to prevent such cases, not to risk people’s lives and not to spoil the precious nature on our planet.

Bibliography

1. XX century. Chronicle of the Inexplicable: From Catastrophe to Catastrophe. – M.: AST Olimp, 1998.

2. Alymov V.T. etc. Analysis technogenic risk: Textbook. allowance. – M.: All year round, 2000.

3. Armand A.D., Man-made disasters - M., 1993.

4. Safety and emergency prevention. Regulatory mechanisms and technical means: Catalog-directory / Institute of Risk and Security. – M., 1997.

5. Global problems as a source of emergency situations: Int. Conf., April 22-23. 1998 – M.: URSS, 1998.

6. Kozlitin A.M., Popov A.I. Methods for technical and economic assessment of industrial and environmental safety of high-risk technosphere objects - Saratov: SSTU, 2000.

7. Manyakov V.D. Safety of society and people in modern world: Tutorial. - St. Petersburg: Politekhnika, 2005.

8. Mikryukov Yu.V. Life safety M., 2006.

Internet:

9. Sayano-Shushenskaya disaster. http://www.atominfo.ru

10. Problems of nuclear energy. http://www.energospace.ru

Applications

1. Scheme of equipment wear and tear in Russia for 2008.

2. Table of man-made disasters in the world since the beginning of the 20th century.

3. Scheme of the average age of equipment in Russia from 1970 to 2004.

4. Dynamics of man-made emergency situations for the period 1996-2006.

5. Map of the Russian Federation with man-made disasters marked on it.

6. Measurement of SMR (standard mortality ratio) of childhood leukemia near American nuclear power plants.

7. World map with marked on it man-made accidents and disasters.

When problems occur in the city sewer system, specialists go to the site to determine the hazard class of pollutants in the wastewater, which, due to an accident, end up in the wrong place. After which work begins to eliminate the consequences of the accident, taking into account this hazard class.

Are there the same parameters of wastewater in private sewerage facilities and what can happen to the most common septic tanks and VOCs?

To understand this, you first need to understand what characteristics are decisive in the operation of small treatment plants, which are equipped with private houses in urban areas and rural villages.

Technical specifications for treatment plants

From the point of view of legislation and the existing regulatory framework, there are no strict rules in the installation of small treatment facilities on the territory of individual plots.

And if the manufacturer issues VOCs to its wastewater treatment plants technical specifications and guarantees compliance with the parameters specified in these specifications, then manufacturers of containers do not “bother” with such issues.

And if you look at how the work of installing concrete rings is carried out, then it generally becomes unclear how at least some requirements can be imposed on the operation of individual treatment facilities on sites for individual housing construction.

But, in fact, there are requirements, but many owners of private houses do not know about it.

The organization, which in common parlance is called SES, must monitor the condition of not only urban wastewater treatment plants that process waste from large cities, but also all small treatment plants that work on wastewater from every private home.

True, the Sanitary and Epidemiological Control Service (this is the correct name for this service at present) has practically no regulatory framework for such control. SES employees can rely on the norms and requirements of SanPiN, however, for a private developer these norms are not in the nature of law, but are just a recommendation document.

However, accidents at wastewater treatment plants, examples of which are posted on forums by owners of private houses, clearly show that even advisory standards must be followed. Otherwise, not only the owners of the treatment plants themselves suffer, but also all their neighbors, and often the residents of the entire village.

In such a situation when legal framework There is no strict execution procedure; one of the main guarantors of the correct operation of the septic tank or VOC can be the technical conditions (TS), which have already been mentioned above.

When coming to a company that sells and installs VOCs, you should immediately familiarize yourself with the specifications for the products. It is there that the owner of a private house can immediately find answers to questions regarding the safety of the installation and its long-term trouble-free operation.

What factors can be dangerous?

Let's look at what factors can be dangerous during the operation of treatment facilities that process wastewater from a private home.

Firstly, the main dangerous factor is the possible discharge of untreated wastewater directly onto the ground or its release into an open body of water on the territory of the village. If untreated water gets onto the ground during a volley discharge, then, first of all, drinking water in all wells and shallow wells throughout the village is at risk.

Do not think that if 200-300 liters of sewage spilled into a ditch, then only 2-3 nearby areas will be affected.

The movement of water in the upper subsoil layer is such that all wells, Abyssinian wells and sand wells up to 15 meters deep can be contaminated over an area of ​​several square kilometers.

Secondly, a certain problem is posed by sludge from wastewater treatment plants, the hazard class of which, although low, is, nevertheless, the sludge itself is an organically active and sometimes toxic substance.

Naturally, with proper processing, this sludge is an excellent fertilizer for garden plots or vegetable gardens. However, not at the moment when it just poured out during emergency release from a septic tank or VOC tank.

At this moment, it contains bacteria that are not the most beneficial for any person. The entry of silt into an open body of water in such a phase can lead to an outbreak of dysentery in this, as well as in all nearby residential settlements.

Thirdly, the problem is the possible seepage of untreated wastewater into the ground in the immediate vicinity of the septic tank or VOCs. This can occur either due to a slight overflow of the receiving containers, or due to possible leakage of the containers.

Such leakage may occur due to poor-quality manufacturing of the product, due to breakage during improper transportation, as well as due to damage during installation or from soil movement.

For this reason it must be installed sanitary protection zone sewerage treatment facilities of a private house. Septic tanks and VOCs should be located no closer than 15 meters from sources of drinking water, which are wells and boreholes.

It would seem that what could threaten a well 30 meters deep with a small “drain” onto the ground from a septic tank? It turns out it can. Untreated sewage with an improperly constructed lock around the wellbore can easily overcome these very 30 meters of depth and become a source of contamination of drinking water.

And the owner finds out about this only when members of his family get sick, which, you see, is unacceptable in any case.

Elimination of accidents and repair work

What to do if a salvo discharge or leakage due to leakage does occur? There is only one answer - call specialists to eliminate the accident and eliminate flaws in the operation of the equipment.

To begin with, a cost estimate for the repair work of treatment facilities is drawn up, which must clearly state how much each item of work performed costs.

The owner must understand right away that a spill of his raw sewage is not an accident on an oil rig in the middle of the Gulf of Mexico. There is no need to eliminate the breakdown of his septic tank by any means and forces. Like any work, such liquidation is simply calculated and costs some money. Of course, the owner is shocked that members of his family, neighbors, or even all residents of the village may suffer.

However, it is worth remembering that the collection and disposal of contaminated soil, the purification of open water reservoirs and the repair of treatment facilities have clear tariffs. In any self-respecting specialized company These tariffs are written down and, if necessary, are provided to the owner in paper form; they are not taken “off the shelf”.

If the “liquidators” who arrived at your call begin to roll their eyes at him and name some random numbers “out of thin air,” drive such would-be emergency workers away.

Naturally, eliminating accidents at wastewater treatment plants is not a cheap undertaking. Be prepared for the fact that cleaning the reservoir will cost you 130,000-250,000 rubles, depending on the degree of pollution. Excavation and disposal of contaminated soil will cost 40,000-80,000 rubles.

And digging up a septic tank, searching for damaged connections and sealing cracks or leaks will cost 25,000-50,000 rubles. As you can see, the numbers are not the smallest, but what do they mean in comparison with the health of your loved ones and your good neighbors?

And in order not to be plunged into such considerable expenses, it is worth thinking in advance about what characteristics to choose a VOC or septic tank, and control the entire process of loading, delivery and installation of treatment facilities. Remember that first and foremost you will be the interested user of these devices.

April 18 in the American city of West (Texas). From 5 to 15 people were killed, about 160 people were injured. In total, dozens of houses were destroyed. Due to the explosion, power supply in the area was disrupted.

August 25 on the territory of the largest oil refinery in Venezuela, Paraguana Refining Center. A propane vapor fire occurred in the oil storage area. Later, two tanks caught fire. The fire spread to a nearby barracks, pipelines and cars parked nearby. The fire engulfed the third oil tank on the night of August 28. It was only on the afternoon of August 28 that the fire was completely extinguished. As a result of the disaster, 42 people were killed and 150 were injured.

February 28 at a chemical plant in the Chinese province of Hebei, killing 25 people. An explosion occurred in the nitroguanidine production workshop at the Hebei Care chemical plant in Zhaoxian County, Shijiazhuang.

12-th of September at Centraco's radioactive material processing facility in Marcoule, France. One person died, four were injured. The incident occurred in a furnace for transporting metal waste that was weakly irradiated at nuclear facilities. No radiation leaks were detected.

On August 9, 320 kilometers west of Tokyo, on the island of Honshu, an accident occurred at the Mihama nuclear power plant. An extremely powerful release of hot steam (about 200 degrees Celsius) occurred in the turbine of the third reactor. All nearby employees received severe burns. At the time of the accident, about 200 people were in the building where the third reactor is located. Four people were killed and another 18 employees were injured.

On November 13, off the coast of Spain, the oil tanker Prestige was caught in a strong storm, with more than 77 thousand tons of high-sulfur fuel oil in its holds. As a result of the storm, a crack about 50 meters long appeared in the ship's hull. On November 19, the tanker broke in half and sank. As a result of the disaster, 64 thousand tons of fuel oil ended up in the sea.

Complete cleanup of the water area cost $12 billion, but it is impossible to fully assess the damage caused to the ecosystem.

On September 21, an explosion occurred at the AZF chemical plant in Toulouse (France), the consequences of which are considered one of the largest man-made disasters. 300 tons of ammonium nitrate, which were in a warehouse, exploded finished products. According to the official version, the blame for the disaster was placed on the management of the plant, which did not ensure the safe storage of the explosive substance.

As a result of the emergency, 30 people died, total number the number of wounded exceeded 3.5 thousand, thousands of residential buildings and many institutions were destroyed or seriously damaged, including 79 schools, 11 lyceums, 26 colleges, two universities, 184 kindergartens, 27 thousand apartments, 40 thousand people were left homeless, 134 enterprises actually ceased operations. Authorities and insurance companies received 100 thousand claims for compensation. total amount damage amounted to three billion euros.

In July, a disaster at the Petrobras oil refinery in Brazil spilled more than a million gallons of oil into the Iguazu River. The resulting stain moved downstream, threatening to poison the drinking water of several cities at once. The liquidators of the accident built several barriers, but they managed to stop the oil only at the fifth one. One part of the oil was collected from the surface of the water, the other went through specially built diversion channels.

The Petrobras company paid a fine of $56 million to the state budget and $30 million to the state budget.

The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources

Accidents at treatment plants (WTP).

They are divided into accidents in the waste water treatment system of industrial enterprises with a massive release of pollutants and accidents in the waste water treatment system of industrial gases with a massive release of pollutants.

Treatment facilities are specialized equipment for wastewater treatment, which can be of a local type, that is, installed at small private facilities, or industrial. Accidents at wastewater treatment plants can occur for several reasons:

• · - power outage. To avoid such a situation, it is necessary to take care of emergency shutdown of equipment or alternative power sources.
• ·- depreciation of equipment. Timely maintenance, troubleshooting, equipment reconstruction, replacement of failed parts or entire installations are measures to prevent this type of accident.
• · - weather and natural disasters. Wastewater treatment equipment must be designed and manufactured taking into account climatic and seismic zone object.
• ·- human factor. High-quality staff training and selection of responsible employees are required, as well as security measures to prevent terrorist attacks.
• · - non-standard operation of treatment facilities. The amount of contaminated wastewater should not exceed the productivity of the equipment; it is necessary to provide for the destruction of each type of pollution from industrial wastewater.

Accidents involving the release (threat of release) of biologically hazardous substances. accident collapse radiation emergency

A biologically hazardous facility is an object where hazardous biological substances are stored, studied, used and transported, in the event of an accident or destruction of which, death or biological contamination of people, farm animals and plants, as well as chemical contamination of the natural environment may occur.

Biologically hazardous objects are enterprises of the pharmaceutical, medical and microbiological industries with the presence in the technological chain of the so-called biological factor, the main components of which are microorganisms, products of the metabolic activity of microorganisms and microbiological synthesis.

Accidents with release (threat of release) of chemically active substances - accidents with releases that can be causative agents of bacterial diseases affecting people (plague, anthrax, cholera, tularemia, brucellosis), causative agents of viral diseases (smallpox, yellow fever, etc.). Biological factors affecting animals can be pathogens of foot-and-mouth disease, plague cattle, anthrax and other diseases; for the destruction of plants - pathogens of cereal rust, late blight of potatoes, late wilting of corn and other crops; insect pests of agricultural plants, herbicides and other chemicals. An essential feature of biological weapons is the presence of a latent period of action, during which the affected remain in the ranks and perform their duties, and then suddenly fall ill. Accidents involving the release (threat of release) of hazardous chemicals occur at enterprises and research institutions (laboratories).

In order to localize and eliminate the source of biological contamination, a set of security, isolation, restrictive and medical measures is carried out, which can be carried out within the framework of the quarantine and observation regime.

Quarantine should be understood as a system of government measures, including security, administrative and economic, anti-epidemic, sanitary and treatment and preventive measures aimed at localizing and eliminating the source of biological damage.

When introducing quarantine, the following is provided:

cordoning off and armed guarding the borders of the source of infection in order to isolate it from surrounding areas;

deployment of checkpoints (KPGO sanitary control points (SCP)) on the main transport routes to control the entry and exit of citizens from the quarantine zone, the import of food, medicine and basic necessities for the population;

organization of a special commandant service in the quarantine zone to ensure the established order and regime of catering, protection of water supply sources;

restriction of communication between separate groups population;

identification, isolation and hospitalization of infectious patients.

In this essay, I examined the most common types of accidents and disasters, and this list, of course, cannot be considered exhaustive. Levels and magnitude of impacts negative factors are constantly increasing and in a number of regions the technosphere has reached such levels that humans and the natural environment are in danger of irreversible changes. Many accidents and disasters entail other accidents, which further increases their danger. As a rule, the consequence major accidents and disasters are fires and explosions, as a result of which production and residential buildings, machinery and equipment are damaged. In some cases, they cause atmospheric pollution, spills of oil products, as well as aggressive liquids and hazardous chemical substances (HAS).

The causes of industrial accidents and disasters can be natural disasters, defects made during the design or construction of structures and installation of technical systems, violations of production technology, rules of operation of transport, equipment, machines, mechanisms. Thus, the topic of accidents and disasters does not lose its relevance and only a detailed analysis of the causes and consequences of these tragic events, as well as improving methods of not only eliminating the consequences, but also preventing them themselves can help avoid loss of life, loss of property and irreparable damage to the environment .

Accidents at wastewater treatment plants include: accidents at wastewater treatment plants of industrial enterprises with massive release of pollutants; accidents at industrial gas treatment plants with massive release of pollutants and accidents at sewage treatment plants with fecal waste.

The danger of volley releases of poisonous or toxic substances into the environment naturally has a negative impact on personnel. Such accidents can become a source of dangerous infectious diseases in people and animals.

Hydrodynamic accidents

A hydrodynamic accident is an emergency event associated with failure (destruction) hydraulic structure or parts thereof, and the uncontrolled movement of large masses of water, causing destruction and flooding of vast areas. The main potentially dangerous hydraulic structures include dams, water intake and drainage structures (sluices).

Destruction (breakthrough) of hydraulic structures occurs as a result of natural forces (earthquakes, hurricanes, dam washouts) or human influence (nuclear or conventional weapons on hydraulic structures, large natural dams, acts of sabotage), as well as due to structural defects or design errors.

The consequences of hydrodynamic accidents are:

damage and destruction of waterworks and short-term or long-term cessation of their functions;

defeat of people and destruction of structures by a breakthrough wave formed as a result of the destruction of a hydraulic structure, having a height of 2 to 12 m and a speed of 3 to 25 km/h (for mountainous areas - up to 100 km/h);

catastrophic flooding of vast areas with a layer of water from 0.5 to 10 m or more.

Preventive measures

If you live in an area adjacent to a hydroelectric complex, check whether it falls within the zone of impact of a breakthrough wave and possible catastrophic flooding. Find out if there are hills near your place of residence, and what are the shortest routes to them.

Study for yourself and familiarize family members with the rules of behavior when exposed to waves of breakthrough and flooding of the area, with the order of general and private evacuation. Specify in advance the gathering place for evacuees, make a list of documents and property to be removed during evacuation.

Remember the locations of boats, rafts, other watercraft and available materials for their manufacture.

How to act in the event of a threat hydrodynamic accident

When receiving information about the threat of flooding and evacuation, immediately, in the prescribed manner, leave the danger zone to a designated safe area or to elevated areas. Take with you documents, valuables, essentials and food supplies for 2-3 days. Some of the property that needs to be preserved from flooding, but cannot be taken with you, should be moved to the attic, upper floors of the building, trees, etc.

Before leaving home, turn off the electricity and gas, and tightly close windows, doors, ventilation and other openings.

How to act in flood conditions during hydrodynamic accidents

In case of sudden flooding, to escape from the impact of a breakthrough wave, urgently take the nearest elevated place, climb a large tree or the top floor of a stable building. If you are in the water, when a breakout wave approaches, dive into the depths at the base of the wave.

Once in the water, swim or use improvised means to get out to a dry place, preferably to a road or dam along which you can get to a non-flooded area.

If your house is flooded, turn off its power supply, signal that there are people in the house (apartment) by hanging a flag made of bright fabric from the window during the day, and a lantern at night. To receive information, use a self-powered radio. Move your most valuable possessions to the upper floors and attics. Organize the accounting of food and drinking water, their protection from the effects of rising water and their economical use.

When preparing for a possible evacuation by water, take documents, essential items, clothes and shoes with water-repellent properties, and available life-saving equipment (inflatable mattresses, pillows).

Do not attempt to evacuate on your own. This is possible only if there is visibility of a non-flooded area, the threat of worsening the situation, the need to receive medical care, the consumption of food and the lack of prospects for receiving outside help.

What to do after a hydrodynamic accident

Before entering the building, make sure there is no significant damage to the ceilings or walls. Ventilate the building to remove accumulated gases. Do not use open flame sources until the room is fully ventilated and the gas supply system is checked to ensure proper operation. Check the serviceability of electrical wiring, gas supply pipes, water supply and sewerage. They are allowed to be used only after the conclusion of specialists about their serviceability and suitability for work. Dry the room by opening all doors and windows. Remove dirt from the floor and walls, pump out water from basements. Do not eat food that has been in contact with water.