Letter after kappa crossword puzzle. Greek language and alphabet

Instructions

Write the first four letters Greek alphabet. The capital “alpha” looks like a regular A, the lowercase one can look like an “a” or a horizontal loop - α. Big “beta” “B”, a – the usual “b” or with a tail falling below the line – β. The capital "" looks like a Russian "G", but the lowercase one looks like a vertical loop (γ). “Delta” is an equilateral triangle - Δ or the Russian handwritten “D” at the beginning of the line, and in its continuation it looks more like a “b” with a tail from the right side of the circle - δ.

Remember the spelling of the following four letters - "epsilon", "zeta", "eta" and "theta". The first one in capital printed and handwritten form is indistinguishable from the familiar “E”, and in lowercase form it is a mirror image of “z” - ε. The big "zeta" is the well-known "Z". Another spelling is ζ. In manuscripts it may look like a written Latin f - a vertical loop above the line line and its mirror image below it. “This” “H” or like a lowercase n with a tail down – η. “Theta” has no analogues either in the Latin alphabet or in the Cyrillic alphabet: it is “O” with a dash inside – Θ, θ. On the letter, its lowercase style looks like a Latin v, in which the right tail is raised up and rounded first to the left, and then. There is another spelling option - similar to the written Russian “v”, but in a mirror image.

Specify the type of the following four letters - “iota”, “kappa”, “lambda”, “mu”. The spelling of the first is no different from the Latin I, only the lowercase letter does not have a dot at the top. “Kappa” is the spitting image of “K”, but in the letter inside the word it looks like the Russian “i”. “Lambda” - the capital one is written as a triangle without a base - Λ, and the lowercase one has an additional tail at the top and a playfully curved right leg - λ. A very similar thing can be said about “mu”: at the beginning of the line it looks like “M”, and in the middle of the word it looks like μ. It can also be written as a long vertical line that falls below the line to which the “l” is stuck.

Try writing "nu", "xi", "omicron" and "pi". “Nude” is displayed as Ν or as ν. It is important that when writing in lowercase, the corner at the bottom is clearly defined letters. “Xi” are three horizontal lines that are either not connected by anything or have a vertical line, Ξ, in the center. The lowercase letter is much more elegant, it is written like “zeta”, but with tails at the bottom and at the top - ξ. “Omicron” only has an unfamiliar name, but looks like “o” in any spelling. The "Pi" in the title variant is a "P" with a wider top bar than the variant. The lowercase is written either the same as - π, or like a small “omega” (ω), but with a dashing loop at the top.

Break down "rho", "sigma", "tau" and "upsilon". “Ro” is a printed “P” large and small, and the option looks like a vertical dash with a circle - P and ρ. "Sigma" in capital form is most easily described as a printed letter "M" that has been knocked over - Σ. The lowercase has two writing options: a circle with a tail pointing to the right (σ) or a disproportionate s, the lower part of which hangs from the line - ς. “Tau” is capitalized like a printed “T”, and a regular one is like a hook with a horizontal head or a Russian written “ch”. “Upsilon” is the Latin “Y” in capital form: or v on a stem – Υ. The lowercase υ should be smooth, without an angle at the bottom - this is a sign of a vowel.

Pay attention to the last four letters. "Phi" is written as "f" in both uppercase and lowercase versions. True, the latter may have the form “c”, which has a loop and a tail below the line - φ. “Chi” is our “x”, both large and small, only in the letter the dash going down from left to right has a smooth bend - χ. “Psi” resembles the letter “I”, which has grown wings - Ψ, ψ. In the manuscript it is depicted similarly to the Russian “u”. The capital “omega” is different between printed and handwritten. In the first case, this is an open loop with – Ω. Use your hand to write a circle in the middle of the line and a line underneath it, which may or may not be connected by a vertical line. The lowercase letter is written as a double “u” - ω.

Video on the topic

Sources:

• Greek alphabet. Writing technology
• 4 letter greek letter

First graders become familiar with writing letters in writing lessons. First, children learn to write samples of various elements, then the letters themselves and their combinations in syllables. Capital letters contain more elements than lowercase letters, so writing them can be challenging for little ones. Hence, it is important to correctly explain and show the writing of capital letters.

Instructions

Read to the children a riddle or, in which several contain a sound corresponding to the letter being studied. The guys should name him. Invite them to draw a picture of a given object in their notebooks. letter. For example, in “In the big book, Katya looked at people of color. On one of them she saw a carousel”, the sound “k” and the letter K are found, students can depict.

Showcase the capitalization letter On the desk. Next, conduct a graphical analysis of it with your children. For example, the letter E consists of two semi-ovals, the capital letter L consists of two inclined lines with curves at the bottom, etc.

Write capital letter on the board and comment on your actions. For example, you are studying with students letter And, explain its writing using the following words: “I place the pen in the middle of the wide line, move up, round to the right and draw down an inclined line to the bottom line of the working line, round to the right, move to the right to the middle of the wide line, return down the written line, I draw an inclined line to the bottom line of the working line, rounding this element to the right.” When showing, all writing must be continuous!

Have students trace your capital letters with their fingers. letter in the air or according to a model in notebooks, construct it from threads or, write with a pen on tracing paper according to a model, etc.

Go to your notebooks. Students first circle the proposed examples in the copybooks, and then write a few letters on their own. Next, children can compare their work with the model. To do this, you need tracing paper with the letter drawn earlier on your notebooks.

Conduct a survey of students, the purpose of which is to pronounce cases of writing capital letters. Consider ways to connect capital letters to lowercase letters. For example, Sl is the lower connection, Co is the middle connection, St is the upper connection.

A column is an architecturally designed vertical support for the upper parts of a building. In ancient Greek architecture, most often a pillar with a round cross-section supporting a capital. Ancient architecture is diverse, and it is not necessary to have an art history education to distinguish between the types of Greek columns.

Instructions

Columns occupied a key place in ancient Greece. The Greeks developed three architectural orders, which differed primarily in the styles of columns: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Any order consists of a column itself (sometimes placed on a base), a stylobate on which the columns stand, and a capital, which in turn rests on an architrave (bearing beam) with a decorative frieze and cornice.

Greek writing belongs to the alphabetic category and goes back to the Phoenician writing. The oldest written monuments date back to the 14th-12th centuries. BC e., written in the Cretan-Mycenaean syllabic script (Linear A, Linear B).
It is believed that Greek alphabet arose in the 8th century. BC e. The first written monuments date back to the 8th century. BC e. (Dipylon inscription from Athens, as well as an inscription from Thera). In appearance and set of symbols it is most similar to the Phrygian alphabetic letter (8th century BC). In the Greek language, unlike the Semitic, consonantal (only consonants are reflected in the letter) prototype, in addition to graphemes to denote consonant sounds, graphemes for the first time appeared to denote vowel sounds, which can be considered a new stage in the development of writing.

Before the advent of alphabetic writing, the Hellenes used syllabic linear writing (Cretan writing, included Linear A, which has not yet been deciphered, Linear B, Phaistos disc writing).
Writing based on the Greek alphabet was divided into 2 varieties: Eastern Greek and Western Greek writing, which, in turn, were divided into a number of local varieties that differed in their features in the transmission of individual characters. Eastern Greek writing later developed into classical ancient Greek and Byzantine writing and became the basis for Coptic, Gothic, Armenian, and to some extent Georgian writing, and the Slavic Cyrillic alphabet. Western Greek writing became the basis for Etruscan, and therefore Latin and runic Germanic writing.

Initially, the Greek alphabet consisted of 27 letters, and in this form it developed by the 5th century. BC e. based on the Ionian variety of Greek writing. The writing direction is from left to right. The signs “stigma” (ς), now rendered through στ, “coppa” (¢) and “sampi” (¥) were used only to denote numbers and subsequently fell out of use. Also, in some local variants (in the Peloponnese and Boeotia), the symbol  “digamma” was used to denote the phoneme [w].
Traditionally, the ancient Greek alphabet, and after it the modern Greek alphabet, has 24 letters:

In theory, two types of pronunciation are distinguished: Erasmian (ητακιστική προφορά, it is believed that it was characteristic in the classical period of the use of the ancient Greek language, now used only in teaching) and Reuchlin (ιωτακιστική προφορά). Pronunciation in Modern Greek is Reichlin. Its main feature is the presence of several options for transmitting the same sound.
There are diphthongs in Greek:

All diphthongs are pronounced in one syllable. If after ει, οι, ι, υ there is a vowel, this combination is also pronounced in one syllable: πιάνο [пъ΄яно] (piano), ποιες [pies] (who). Such diphthongs are called improper (καταχρηστικός δίφθογγος).
The letter Γ followed by ει, οι, ι, υ, ε, which in turn is followed by a vowel, is not pronounced: γυαλιά [yal΄ya] (glasses), γεύση [΄yevsi] (taste). Γ before back-linguals (γ, κ, χ) is pronounced as [n]: άγγελος [΄angelos] (angel), αγκαλιά [angal΄ya] (embraces), άγχος [΄ankhos] (stress).

In addition, the following combinations of consonants began to be used in the modern Greek language, conveying the sounds of the Greek language: τσ (τσάϊ [ts "ay] but: έτσι ["etsy]), τζ (τζάμι [dz"ami]), μπ (mb in the middle originally Greek word: αμπέλι [amb "eli] or b at the beginning of the word and in borrowed words: μπορώ [bor"o]), ντ (nd in the middle of the original Greek word: άντρας ["andras] or d at the beginning of the word and in borrowed words : ντύνω [d"ino]), γκ (ng in the middle of the original Greek word: ανάγκη [an"angi] or g at the beginning of the word and in borrowed words: γκολ [goal]).

Double letters ξ ψ always replace the combination of consonants κσ, πσ. Exception: εκστρατεία (campaign). The sign ς is used only at the end of a word. The sign σ is never used at the end of a word.
The word can end in a vowel, ν or ς. The only exceptions are some interjections and borrowed words.

Additional Information:

Peculiarities:
The phonetic system consists of 5 vowel phonemes, contrasted in ancient Greek by length/shortness (a, e, i, o, u). In modern Greek such a division is irrelevant. Adjacent vowels merge into a long vowel or form a diphthong. Diphthongs are divided into proper (the second element is necessarily ι, υ) and improper (the combination of a long vowel with i). The stress in the ancient Greek language is musical, mobile, of three types: (sharp, obtuse and invested). In modern Greek there is only one type of stress - acute. In the consonant system of the Modern Greek language, new sounds have developed: labial-dental [ντ], interdental voiced [δ] and voiceless [θ], which cause the greatest difficulties in their pronunciation.

Morphology is characterized by the presence of nominal parts of speech of a name of 3 genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), their indicators are also articles (definite and indefinite: the indefinite article occurs and fully corresponds to the numeral one), 2 numbers (singular, plural, in ancient Greek there was also a dual a number to denote paired objects such as “eyes, hands, twins”), 5 cases (nominative, vocative, genitive, dative, accusative: in ancient Greek there were remnants of other cases, for example, instrumental, locative, and so on; in modern Greek there is no dative case), 3 nominal inflections (on -a, on -o, on other vowels, as well as consonants). The verb had 4 moods (indicative, conjunctive, optative and imperative), 3 voices (active, passive, medial, in modern Greek medial when inflected fully corresponds to the passive), 2 types of conjugation (in -ω and -μι, in modern Greek division into conjugations carried out by the presence or absence of stress on the last syllable of the verb).

Groups of tenses: in ancient Greek they are divided into main (present, future, perfect) and historical (aorist, perfect and plusquaperfect). In modern Greek the division occurs into the present tense, long tenses and moods (παρατατικός, συνεχής μέλλοντας, συνεχής υποτακτική, συνεχή ? ακτική), finished times (παρακείμενος, υπερσυντέλικος, τετελεσμένος μέλλοντας). In the system of verb tenses of the modern Greek language, new analytical models for the formation of complex tenses (perfect, plusquaperfect, future) have developed. The system of forming participles has been simplified, but a large number of them are used in a frozen form, and syllabic increment or reduplication is often used in their formation.

The syntactic system is characterized by a free order of words in a sentence (predominant sequence in the main clause - SVO (subject-verb-object)) with a developed system of composition and subordination within a complex sentence. Particles play an important role (especially since the modern Greek language has abolished the infinitive, which is replaced by indicative forms with corresponding particles) and prepositions. The system of word-formation means includes a developed system of prefixes (derived from prepositional adverbs) and suffixes. Compounding is used more actively than in the Russian language.

The Greek language has a very rich and developed lexical system. The structure of the vocabulary includes several layers: pre-Greek (of Pelasgian origin), original Greek, borrowed, consisting of Semitic and Latin layers. Modern Greek contains a large number of borrowings from Romance (mainly French and especially Italian), Germanic (English), Slavic (including Russian) languages. A huge layer of vocabulary consists of Turkish borrowings. It is also worth mentioning reverse borrowings, when Greek morphemes previously borrowed by other foreign languages ​​are returned to the Greek language to name newly invented objects and phenomena (for example, “telephone”).
Some features unite the Modern Greek language with other Balkan languages ​​(Romanian, Serbian Bulgarian): combining the functions of the genitive and dative cases, the absence of the infinitive and its replacement with forms of the subjunctive mood, complex (analytical) forms of the future tense and the subjunctive mood. Elements common to all Balkan languages ​​in the syntax are excessive doubling of direct and indirect objects, the use of pronominal repetitions, which cause great difficulty for users of other languages.

Modern Greek has a generally free word order. However, pronouns often lose this freedom: a possessive pronoun is always placed after the noun being defined, short forms of personal pronouns are necessarily placed immediately before the verb in a certain order (first the genitive case, then the accusative). For possessive and personal pronouns there is a harmonious system of short and long forms. The full form is flexible, but is used strictly in certain cases: after prepositions; for emphatic emphasis of a pronoun together with a short form; on one's own.

The Greek alphabet came into continuous use from the late 9th to early 8th centuries BC. e. According to researchers, this system of written signs was the first to include both consonants and vowels, as well as signs used to separate them. What were the ancient Greek letters like? How did they appear? Which letter ends the Greek alphabet and which letter begins? This and much more is discussed further in the article.

How and when did Greek letters appear?

It must be said that in many Semitic languages ​​letters have independent names and interpretations. It is not entirely clear when exactly the borrowing of signs occurred. Researchers offer various dates for this process from the 14th to the 7th centuries BC. e. But most authors agree on the 9th and 10th centuries. The later dating is somewhat implausible, since the earliest finds of Greek inscriptions may date back to around the 8th century BC. e. or even earlier. In the 10th-9th centuries, North Semitic scripts had a certain similarity. But there is evidence that the Greeks borrowed the writing system specifically from the Phoenicians. This is also plausible because this Semitic group was the most widely dispersed and actively engaged in trade and navigation.

general information

The Greek alphabet includes 24 letters. In some dialects of the pre-classical era, other signs were also used: heta, sampi, stigma, coppa, san, digamma. Of these, the three letters of the Greek alphabet given at the end were also used to write numbers. In the Phoenician system, each symbol was called the word that began with it. So, for example, the first written sign is “aleph” (ox), the next is “bet” (house), the 3rd is gimel (camel) and so on. Subsequently, when borrowing for greater convenience, changes were made to almost every name. The letters of the Greek alphabet thus became somewhat simpler, losing their interpretation. Thus, aleph became alpha, bet became beta, and gimel became gamma. Subsequently, when some symbols were changed or added to the writing system, the names of the Greek letters became more meaningful. So, for example, “omicron” is a small o, “omega” (the last character in the written system) - accordingly, is a large o.

Innovations

Greek letters were the foundation for the creation of the main European fonts. Moreover, initially the system of written signs was not simply borrowed from the Semites. The Greeks made their own changes to it. Thus, in Semitic writing, the direction of characters was either from right to left, or in turn in accordance with the direction of the lines. The second way of writing began to be called "boustrophedon". This definition is a combination of two words, translated from Greek as “bull” and “turn”. Thus, a visual image of an animal is formed, dragging a plow across the field, changing direction from furrow to furrow. As a result, the direction from left to right became a priority in Greek writing. This, in turn, caused a number of corresponding changes in the form of some symbols. Therefore, the Greek letters of a later style represent a mirrored image of Semitic symbols.

Meaning

Based on the Greek alphabet, a large number of written sign systems were created and subsequently developed, which spread in the Middle East and Europe and were used in writing in many countries around the world. The Cyrillic and Latin alphabet were no exception. It is known that, for example, predominantly Greek letters were used during creation. In addition to the fact that the symbols were used to record language, they were used as international mathematical symbols. Today, Greek letters are used not only in mathematics, but also in other exact sciences. In particular, these symbols refer to stars (for example, the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet “tau” was used to designate Tau Ceti), elementary particles, etc.

Archaic Greek letters

These symbols are not included in the classical writing system. Some of them (sampi, coppa, digamma), as mentioned above, were used for numerical recordings. At the same time, two - sampi and coppa - are still used today. In Byzantine times, the digamma was replaced by the ligature stigma. In a number of archaic dialects, these symbols still had a sound meaning and were used when writing words. The most important representatives of the Greek direction are the Latin system and its varieties. In particular, they include Gaelic and At the same time, there are other fonts that are directly or indirectly related to the Greek alphabet. Among them, the Ogham and runic systems should be noted.

Symbols used for other languages

In a number of cases, Greek letters were used to record completely different languages ​​(for example, Old Church Slavonic). In this case, new symbols were added to the new system - additional signs that reflected the existing sounds of the language. Over the course of history, separate written systems were often formed in such cases. This, for example, happened with the Cyrillic, Etruscan and Coptic alphabets. But often the system of written signs remained essentially unchanged. That is, during its creation, Greek letters were predominantly present and additional symbols were present only in small quantities.

Spreading

The Greek alphabet had several varieties. Each species was associated with a specific colony or city-state. But all these varieties fall into one of the two main categories used in the western and eastern Greek spheres of influence. The difference between the varieties was the sound functions that were assigned to the symbols added to those already contained in the written system. So, for example, in the east it was pronounced as ps, in the west as kh, while the sign “hi” in the east was pronounced as kh, in the west - ks. The classical Greek script was a typical example of the Ionic or Oriental type of writing system. It was officially adopted in 404 BC. e. in Athens and subsequently spread throughout Greece. The direct descendants of this font are modern writing systems, such as, for example, Gothic and Coptic, which have survived only in church use. These also include the Cyrillic alphabet, adopted for Russian and a number of other languages. The second main type of Greek writing system, the Western one, was used in some areas of Italy and other Western colonies belonging to Greece. It is believed that this type of writing marked the beginning of the Etruscan script, and through it - the Latin one, which became the main one in the territory of Ancient Rome and Western Europe.

in its oldest form was an exact copy of the Phoenician: the Greeks retained the same sequence of letters in the alphabet as the Phoenicians, and even the names of the letters were denoted by distorted Semitic words.

The Semitic direction of writing was also preserved in ancient Greek inscriptions: characters were written from right to left.
And only in the 4th century BC. The Greeks switched to writing from left to right.

This is how the Greeks wrote and read. This is called “bull turn” (a letter similar to the move of plowing bulls).

Almost all of them originate from the Greek alphabet. all European alphabets. In the West, the alphabet spread through the Greek colonies located in the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula.

The alphabet was borrowed from the Greeks by the Romans, and from them it spread throughout all the countries of Western Europe. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries. the alphabet influenced the emergence of the Armenian alphabet. In the VI century. The Georgian alphabet arose - partly from the Greek with the addition of a few letters.

The Greeks used a new material for writing - it was parchment made from animal skins. It was more durable than papyrus. The use of leather for writing began from very early times in Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor, where it became most widespread.

According to legend in city ​​of Pergamon in the 1st century BC a new way of obtaining material for writing was invented from animal skins.

The oldest pieces of parchment with surviving fragments of texts date back to the 1st century BC, but they began to use it only from the 2nd century. n. e. For making parchment They used the skins of sheep, goats, donkeys, and calves. The skins were soaked in lime water, the wool was scraped off, stretched onto a frame, dried, smoothed with pumice and treated with chalk.

It was durable, had a smooth and light surface. It could be written on both sides. Parchment was painted yellow, blue, black, and purple and was used for luxurious manuscripts. Purple was written in gold or silver.

For a thousand years, the book made from parchment dominated in Europe, while paper made its victorious path in Asian countries. Thanks to parchment, a significant number of manuscripts from the early Middle Ages have been preserved.

In Greece, they were used for writing and ceras- wooden planks coated with wax. They wrote with a stick - style. “Rotate style”, i.e. to erase what was written meant to remove the beauty of language. This is where the expression “literary style” comes from.

Wax tablets They were used mainly for taking notes and writing letters, but sometimes literary and scientific texts were written on them. Several planks were fastened together using a strap or cord pulled through one side. This is how the book turned out.

This method of writing became widespread in Rome. Later it penetrated into the countries of medieval Europe. In Paris back in the 13th century. There were workshops for making wax tablets.

They recited, accompanying themselves on the cithara. Singers were held in high esteem. The Greek rulers loved to surround themselves with the most prominent poets and scientists.

The center of Greek culture was the Athenian slave-owning republic with its capital, where the greatest Greek tragedians, Sophocles and Euripides, lived. Comedy author Aristophanes. Famous philosophers Socrates. In the Athenian Republic, as in other Greek city-states, public education stood at a significant level: the children of all citizens were educated in schools.

There were also high schools in Athens, where young men studied science under the guidance of philosophical teachers. The most famous were: the school of Plato and the school of Aristotle. Plato's teaching was abstract. Aristotle's teaching was based primarily on the observation of natural phenomena. He gave his lectures while walking with his students.

Some of Aristotle's views and discoveries still amaze scientists. Apparently, some of the writings that have survived to this day under the name of Aristotle are recordings of his lectures. One of the highest manifestations of Hellenic creativity was theatrical art. During the heyday of Athenian culture, poets created wonderful comedies and tragedies, many of which have come down to us in later copies. However, Greek culture was put at the service only of free citizens, slaves remained on the sidelines. If there were educated people among the slaves, this was a rare exception.

The book of that time was papyrus scroll. delivered from Egypt. The text on the scroll was written in narrow columns, the direction of the lines was parallel to the length of the scroll. When reading, the papyrus ribbon was gradually rolled from one side to the other so that two columns were simultaneously in view, and the rest of the scroll was rolled up.

? Try rolling up a paper scroll and writing on it like papyrus. Is it convenient?

Due to the fact that papyrus scrolls did not tolerate moisture, which had a destructive effect on them, no authentic books of that time were preserved. And only Egyptian and Greek scrolls were preserved for two to three millennia in completely dry Egyptian sand. Most known scrolls survive in fragments, but sometimes these fragments are significant.

letter, name, pronunciation, Latin transliteration
Α α alpha [a] long or short, a
Β β beta [b] b
Γ γ gamma [g] g
Δ δ delta [d] d
Ε ε epsilon [e] short, e
Ζ ζ zeta [dz] dz
Η η this [uh] long ē
Θ θ theta [thx] th
Ι ι iota [and] long and short, i
Κ κ kappa [k] k
Λ λ lambda [l] l
Μ μ mu [m] m
Ν ν nu [n] n
Ξ ξ xi [ks] x
Ο ο omicron [o] short, o
Π π pi [n] p
Ρ ρ ro [r] r
Σ σ sigma [s] s
Τ τ tau [t] t
Υ υ upsilon [ü] as a vowel in a word tulle, short and long, y
Φ φ fi [f] ph
Χ χ hi [x] ch
Ψ ψ psi [ps] ps
Ω ω omega [o] long ō

Sigma at the end of a word is written as ς: σεισμός earthquake

Ancient Greek vowels were long and short. Alpha, iota and upsilon could represent both short and long sounds. Omega and eta are long [o] and [e], respectively, omicrom and epsilon are short [o] and [e]. In modern tradition, when reading an ancient Greek text, the length of vowels is not conveyed. However, you need to know it to set the accent correctly.

Gamma in combinations γγ γκ γχ γξ is read as [n] ἄγγελος [angelos] messenger, ἄγκυρα [ankyura] anchor, λόγχη [longhe] a spear, Σφίγξ [sphinx] sphinx.

The consonants Φ Θ Χ were originally voiceless aspirated [п х] [т х] [к х]. They lost their aspiration quite early, turning into [f], [t], [x]. Traditionally, aspiration is conveyed only when reading theta. In modern Greek, theta began to mean interdental sound.

Diphthongs. αυ [ау] ευ [еу] - read in one syllable. ου - reads like [y].
Αι [ay] Ει [hey] οι [oh] υι [üy]
In diphthongs with the so-called “signed iota” it is not readable ᾳ [a] ῃ [e] ῳ [o]
If you need to show separate pronunciation of vowels, two dots πραΰς [pro-us] are placed above the second of them gentle

Aspiration. An aspiration sign must be placed above the initial vowels.
᾿ - subtle aspiration. does not affect pronunciation
῾ - thick aspiration, pronounced like Ukrainian g (back-lingual, voiced, fricative). It wouldn’t be a big sin to pronounce a thick aspiration like a Russian [x]. ἡμέρα [hemera] day, ἓξ [hex] six

The initial υ and ρ always have a thick aspiration. Thick aspiration over ρ is not reflected in the pronunciation; it is rendered in Latin as rh. On two adjacent ρ in the middle of the word, aspiration signs are placed: thin over the first, thick over the second. They are also not reflected when spoken.

Accent marks are also placed above the vowels, which will be discussed next time.

This version of reading ancient Greek letters is called Erasmus pronunciation after Erasmus of Rotterdam, who proposed such a reading after comparing Greek words, Greek borrowings in Latin and features of Greek graphics. There is another option - Reichlin pronunciation. It is named after Erasmus' opponent, Johann Reuchlin. Reuchlin was guided by the pronunciation that existed in the Middle Ages.
Features of the Reichlin system.
1) thick aspiration is not pronounced
2) β is read as [in]
3) π after μ and ν is voiced in [b]
4) τ after ν is voiced in [d]
5) κ after γ and ν is voiced in [g]
6) θ is read as [f]
7) Αι is read as [e]
8) the sounds η and υ, as well as the diphthongs Ει οι υι began to be read as [and]
9) αυ and ευ are read before voiced consonants as [av] and [ev], and before voiceless consonants as [af] and [ef].
Erasmus's system is often called etacism, and Reuchlin's - itacism.