The subject matter of criminology is The concept of criminology

The theory of organization as an academic discipline is necessary to ensure the quality of the special theoretical training of economists and managers and the effectiveness of the organizational activities of specialists and managers, both those working in enterprises and institutions of various forms of ownership and sectors of the national economy, and employees in state, central and local governments. Mastering the basics of organization theory allows you to see any problem through a system of organizational relations and find a way to solve it through organizational and constructive work.

Organization theory is a kind of philosophy of organizational activity. It equips with knowledge of organizational laws, principles, rules that require the ability to implement in practice for the development of modern organizational thinking. Knowledge of the theory of organization serves to develop the skills of a systematic and integrated approach to solving practically significant problems.

The theory of organization is not only needed as a foundation in which general cultural, ideological and methodological elements of training a future specialist in the field of management are laid, but also provides constructive knowledge in the form of certain methods, techniques and methods, the knowledge necessary to find solutions to specific organizational problems.

The subject of study of the theory of organization is the analysis of the processes occurring in organizational systems, including the patterns and problems of the development of organizations, which are a purposeful association into groups of individuals for joint activities. It is in the process of cooperation that one can achieve the highest results and direct the collective efforts of people to achieve common goals.

The purpose of the course "Organization Theory" is to study the laws and patterns of the emergence, functioning and development of the organization when considering it as a social system.

The textbook presents a summary of the lectures on the course "Organization Theory" and can be used by students in conjunction with "Design on the course of organization theory". You can consolidate and test the knowledge gained with the help of tests and practical tasks published in the training manual "Guidelines for studying the course "Organization Theory" with a modular training system", demonstrate independence in the preparation and discussion of issues allocated for independent work.

Lecture 1. The theory of organization and its place in the system of scientific knowledge.

The subject and method of organization theory.

The first ideas about the theory of organization.

The concept of "organization".

Organizational theories.

Organization models.

Organization theory - a system of scientific knowledge that summarizes organizational experience and reflects the essence of organizational relations, their internal necessary connections, the laws of functioning and development.

The subject of organization theory - both general and particular patterns that operate in complex organizational systems, organizational relationships, patterns that form connections and interactions between various integral formations and their structural components.

Organization theory involves a macro-study of organizations, since here the organization as a whole is taken as a unit. Finding the optimal option for coordinating its resources has been and remains the main goal of management science.

Historically, one can trace the evolution of theoretical concepts that determine the essence of the organizations themselves, the role and main criteria used to evaluate the activities of various organizational structures. These theories appeared together with A. Bogdanov's tectology, but independently of it. Organizational theories set the task of developing principles, rules, recommendations, procedures for management activities at any given moment, while for tektology it was important to discover objective organizational mechanisms that would not change in different situations.

The instrument of theoretical research is the scientific method (from the Greek. methodos - way of research, theory, doctrine). Under method understood as an ordered activity to achieve a specific goal, a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical knowledge of reality.

Fundamental task organization theory - the study of the influence that individuals and groups of people have on the functioning of the organization, on the changes taking place in it, on ensuring effective purposeful activity and obtaining the necessary results.

Consider the place of organization theory in connection with such sciences as: psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology and economics.

Contribution psychology in the theory of organization manifests itself to the greatest extent through the study and prediction of the behavior of the individual, determining the possibilities for changing people's behavior. Psychology reveals conditions that hinder or promote rational actions and actions of people. Recently, the base of precisely those psychological studies that are directly related to human behavior in an organization has expanded.

Research in the field sociology expand the methodological foundations of organization theory by studying social systems where individuals play their roles and enter into certain relationships with each other. Of fundamental importance is the study of group behavior, especially in formal and complex organizations.

The questions that arise in the process of functioning of the organization are answered by a relatively new scientific discipline - social Psychology . When studying interpersonal behavior, the main guideline is how changes occur, in what forms they are implemented, and how barriers to their perception are overcome. Of exceptional importance for organizations are studies devoted to the assessment and analysis of changes in people's attitudes, forms of communication and ways to meet individual needs in a group activity.

Contribution anthropology in the theory of organization is due to the fact that this branch of knowledge, among other problems, studies the function of the culture of society, i.e., a kind of mechanism for selecting the values ​​and norms of the past, transmitting them to living generations, armed with certain stereotypes of consciousness and behavior.

Relationship of organization theory with economics is determined by the objective need to form the goals and strategy of organizations as the basis for their construction, ensuring their internal and external interactions. Studies of property relations, market and state regulation, macro- and microeconomic aspects of the functioning of business entities, problems of efficiency and its meters, methods of economic incentives are directly related not only to the orientation of organizations, but also to all aspects of their effective activity.

Of particular importance is the connection between organization theory and legal science , studying law as a system of social norms and various aspects of law enforcement. Such branches of legal science as civil, labor and economic law have a direct influence on the formation of key sections of the theory of organization.

An important role is played by modern information systems that link together all the processes of the functioning of organizations and the actual management activities, as well as Informatics as a science that studies the laws, regularities, methods, ways and means of implementing information processes in these systems. Organizations should be structured in such a way as to maximize the capabilities of the management system for processing and transmitting the necessary information, to achieve the required efficiency in making, implementing and monitoring management decisions.

The most important research method organization theory is induction- a logical conclusion from individual facts to a generalization. The study historically and logically begins with the allocation of a specific object - "individual" and the consideration of "general" and "special" in it. Induction is implemented in three main forms:

generalizing and descriptive;

statistical;

abstract analytical.

Generalizing descriptive form assumes that all relationships are quite symbolic and it is necessary to find a formulation that is suitable for a multitude of heterogeneous elements.

statistical form consists in the quantitative accounting of factors and the frequency of their recurrence. It allows you to establish the nature and stability of the organizational relationships of structural elements in various systems, to assess their level of organization and disorganization.

Abstract-analytical form helps to formulate the laws of phenomena, their relationships and constant trends. Essentially, abstraction is the highest level of research. Thanks to it, distraction occurs, the removal of complicating moments, “it reveals in its pure form the basis of these phenomena, i.e. precisely that constant trend that is hidden under their apparent complexity. In order to understand the regularity of the phenomenon, concreteness must be revealed under indifferent symbols.

The beginning of the scientific formation of organizational thought in society is considered to be the period associated with the life and work of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427 - 347 BC). The classical works of Plato "State", "Laws", "Politics" laid the foundations of not only philosophy, but also the organization of the state and law.

Concerned about the problem of "a better life for people", Plato tried to solve it by creating a model of the state, personifying the mind. Plato drew an analogy between a just person and a just state. Justice, according to Plato, is the ability to mind your own business and not interfere in the affairs of others, and this requires hierarchical subordination in the name of the whole. He believed that in just states the hierarchy is established from birth and cannot be changed.

Considering the forms of government, Plato singled out the following: monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, tyranny, and Plato considered only monarchy and aristocracy to be fair. Others he considered as a long civil strife.

In his opinion, both people who are unenlightened and ignorant of the truth, and those who have been left to engage in self-improvement all their lives are not suitable for governing the state.

In an ideal state, they try to eliminate wealth and poverty: one leads to luxury, the other to baseness and atrocities. Plato singled out 4 virtues of an ideal state:

wisdom - sound decisions (knowledge helps to reason);

courage is a kind of safety;

prudence is a kind of order, power over certain pleasures and lusts.

justice - mind your own business and do not interfere with others.

The philosopher attached great importance to unity, which firmly holds the state into a monolithic whole.

In his works, Plato touched upon important milestones in the organization of the state, which, despite the utopian nature of his ideas, bore fruit.

Plato's Disciple Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) in the works "Metaphysics", "Ethics", "Categories" he continued to search for the principles and patterns of streamlining people's lives in society. The primacy and supremacy of form over content (i.e. matter) of the soul over the body, mind over feeling, right over lawlessness and production, good over evil is highly characteristic of both the first and second philosophy of Aristotle.

Both Plato and Aristotle recognized socially useful political activity as the highest expression of human culture.

Aristotle appealed to common sense, saw support for the harmony inherent in nature, asserted the independence of the individual and the independence of the mind from divine predestination, which is especially important in the state, political sphere.

According to Aristotle, unity is unattainable in principle, since only an individual is an indivisible particle, and the state is a kind of multiplicity, a composite complexity of fundamentally heterogeneous elements.

Aristotle introduced a classification of forms of political structure, including three correct (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and three incorrect (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy) models of organizing people's activities. At the same time, he did not consider the state of true virtue either the monarchy or the aristocracy. Many years of research and accumulated experience convinced him of the optimality of the polity - a constitutional moderate democratic republic.

It should be noted that before Confucius (551 - 479 BC) sought to streamline social processes, systematize knowledge about the rational organization of society. He developed the concept of a noble person not by origin, but through upbringing and self-improvement.

The lack of stability and the influence of bureaucracy predetermined the emergence and direction of Confucianism.

The future teachings of Confucius were based on several ethical and philosophical concepts.

In concept Ren ( humanity, philanthropy) and Lee(rules, etiquette) - these two components reflected the views of Confucius on the state structure and social organization of society.

The second concept, the essence of which is “to be faithful (an honest dignitary, honor the rulers”), covered a whole range of problems related to the management system and, above all, to the norms of the relationship between the head of state and officials.

Third concept Zhong-yun known as "following the middle path", in which Confucius warned against being carried away by extremes.

According to the scheme of government developed by Confucius, the management of the state and society was based on the rules to which he attached great importance:

strict regulation of service in the state;

organization of the state apparatus as a single family.

taking into account all contradictions when making decisions;

ore separation;

caste management.

Thus, Confucius, two and a half thousand years ago, expressed universal organizational ideas that are still applied today.

The term " organization"(from Lat - to communicate a harmonious appearance, to arrange) is interpreted in science as the achievement of structuredness, internal order, consistency of interaction with respect to independent parts in a system object.

The organization is characterized by the orderliness of the parts that form a unity, the reverse effect is such that the whole contributes to the preservation of the parts.

The above definitions give grounds to consider the organization both as a process of ordering elements and as a subject of social activity.

From a scientific point of view, the concept of "organization" has several semantic meanings:

organization as a set, as a system of relationships, activities, rights, duties, roles that take place in the process of joint work there. In this case organization considered like a system with an objectified structure;

organization as a phenomenon is the physical combination of real elements to carry out a program or purpose.

organization as a process is a set of actions leading to the formation and improvement of the relationship between the parts of the whole.

organization as a society considers an organization as a group of people with common goals, an organization is a social community.

Organizations can be either formal or informal.

Formal organizations- These are organizations that are officially registered and operate on the basis of existing legislation and established regulations.

Informal organizations- organizations that operate outside the framework of the law, while groups arise spontaneously, but people interact with each other quite regularly. Informal organizations exist in every formal organization.

In recent decades, the study of organizations has become the main task of research conducted jointly by representatives of various scientific disciplines. It gradually turned into an independent scientific field - organization theory.

Within the framework of organization theory, the following theories are distinguished:

Classical Organizational Theory - became the first systematized theory that proposed mechanistic constructions, the use of which must necessarily ensure the effective functioning of the organization. Classical organization theory is based on the following assumptions:

functional hierarchy;

vertical and horizontal specialization;

the priority of internal factors of production in relation to the sphere of consumption;

labor and capital are the main driving forces in the economy. The basis of classical ideas about the organization is the so-called mechanistic approach, which assumes that the organization is a well-functioning machine.

The main contribution to the formation of classical organizational theory belongs to F. Taylor. The significance of F. Taylor's contribution lies in the large-scale application of the analytical method to the improvement of production management. Setting as the main goal the maximum increase in labor productivity, he provided for specific rational measures. It is impossible not to notice in his approach the predominance of mechanism, a purely formal interpretation of social organization in the conditions of production, which fundamentally rejects relations that are not prescribed by the official, functional content.

The classical theory approached the role of man in the organization mechanistically, treating the individual not as a subject, but simply as a factor of production, while his social nature was completely ignored or distorted.

Theories of organizational behavior. Classical organizational theory made it possible to establish technical and economic ties and dependencies of various factors of production. However, the role and importance of the human factor was not sufficiently taken into account. This is due to the formation of a new organizational theory. The criterion for the success of work, according to the theory of human relations, is considered to be an increase in the efficiency of the organization by improving human resources.

The further development of organizational theories is accompanied by persistent attempts to combine classical organizational theory and the theory of human relations.

An example of such a synthesis is admin theorynegative behavior, the ideas of which were proposed by C. Bernard and G. Simon.

C. Bernard proposed a theory of power, calling it elements of formal organization. He linked power to the exchange of information. In his opinion, power is perceived by employees when commands are considered legal, legitimate and necessary. He owns the famous perception theory, according to which the leader is empowered by people who want to be controlled.

G. Simon considered organizations as systems in which people are "mechanisms that make decisions." The essence of the activities of managers, administrators, their power over subordinates is to create the actual and value prerequisites on which the decisions of each member of the organization are based.

In general, the theory of administrative behavior emphasizes the importance of rules and established procedures aimed at maintaining rational behavior within the organization.

Theory of institutions and institutional change. Institutional theory tries to answer why organizations take certain forms and how similar they can be to one another.

Institutions are humanly designed formal (laws, constitutions) and informal (voluntary codes of conduct) constraints and coercive factors that structure human interaction. Institutional development theory emphasizes that major institutional change occurs slowly because institutions are the result of historical change, shaping individual behavior. New institutions appear when society sees an opportunity to make a profit that cannot be obtained under the conditions of the existing institutional system.

From an institutional point of view, the structure of organizations is seen not only as a rational process, but also as a process of external and internal pressure, as a result of which organizations in one area become similar to each other over time. Based on this, the strategic choice or attempt to control the members of the organization is seen as determined by the institutional order of the community in which the organization belongs.

Population-ecological (evolutionary) theory. This direction proposes to transfer analogies from the sphere of biological evolutionary theory to the field of organization theories. The object of the study is the population of organizations that are characterized by a common structure, i.e. organizational form

Representatives of the population-ecological theory argue that environmental factors choose those features of organizations that are best suited to the environment. In other words, the organization adapts to the environment, while the latter itself chooses which organizations to continue to exist.

Tectology of Bogdanov. The main idea of ​​tectology is the identity of natural and social phenomena from an organizational point of view. Each element of nature or society must be considered as a system for which both the relations between parts and the relations of the whole with the external environment are important. A. Bogdanov considered the main thing for tectology to be the establishment of objective patterns of the emergence, functioning and destruction of systems or organizational complexes.

A. Bogdanov considered the organization as a whole, which is greater than the sum of its parts. Organization, according to Bogdanov, is a network of production processes of its components, and structure is a special space-time image of the produced components.

Models of organizations defined by relevant organizational theories:

mechanistic model - (F. Taylor, A. Fayol, M. Weber);

natural organization - (T. Parsons, R. Merton, A. Etzioni);

Functional organizations are considered as an objective self-improving process in which the subjective principle is present, but not dominated. The goal is only one of the foundations for the functioning of the organization;

community organization - (E. Mayo). The main regulator of functioning is the norms of behavior accepted in the organization;

sociotechnical model - (A.Rice, E.Trist). Based on the dependence of intra-group relations on production technology;

interactionistic model - (C. Bernard). An organization is seen as a system of long-term interactions between its members, who bring their own expectations and values ​​into the organization;

cybernetic model – (S.Beer, D.Forrester, S.Young). involves the construction of a complete mathematical model of the organization, taking into account numerous feedbacks;

institutional model - (D. Nordt). Forms and behavior of the organization is determined by customs, traditions, norms;

conflict model - (R. Hall) the organization has many conflicting goals and operates in conditions of conflicting interests of various members of the organization and its groups;

organic model - (T. Burns, D. Stalker). Society is compared to a living organism in which all parts are interdependent. This model assumes the processes of self-regulation, allowing to keep the properties and functions of the organization relatively constant in a rapidly changing external environment;

process model - (A. Bogdanov). Society is viewed as a continuous process of connections (associations) and separations (dissociations), society does not have a stable structure;

problem model - (V.Franchuk). Organizational problems are not seen as obstacles, but as an expression of natural needs and opportunities for their implementation. A problematic organization is characterized by flexibility, the ability to restructure and unstable conditions, for example, during the transition to a market economy, the mechanism of organization will work more clearly, including in structural terms. Compared to the target model, the problem model is more complete and general, because extends not only to artificial, but also to natural organizations.

The subject of the theory of organization is the patterns of construction, functioning and development of organizations of various types and forms (commercial, state, political, public, etc.).

In relation to social objects, the term "organization", as is known, is used in various senses.

An organization is, firstly, an artificial association of an institutional nature that occupies a certain place in society and is intended to perform a certain function. In this sense, the organization acts as a social institution with a certain status and is considered as a stationary object. In this sense, the word "organization" refers, for example, to an enterprise, an authority, a voluntary union, etc.

Secondly, an organization is a certain organizational activity, including the distribution of functions, the establishment of stable relationships, coordination, etc. Here organization is a process associated with a conscious influence on the object and, therefore, with the presence of the organizer and those being organized. In this sense, the concept of "organization" coincides with the term "management", although it does not exhaust it.

Considering the organization as one of the functions of management. M. Meskon defined organization as “the process of creating an enterprise structure that enables people to work effectively to achieve a goal”, highlighting two aspects:

• division of the organization into divisions in accordance with the goals (goals - hierarchy);
• the relationship of powers (delegation, proper powers, responsibility).

In an increasingly changing business world, the traditional mechanisms of organization theory and scientific management are becoming less useful and even completely unproductive. Today, scientists are creating methods by which complex systems can deal effectively with uncertainty and rapid change.

Thus, an important step in the development of the methodology of modern science was the formation of the theory of chaos). In particular, James Glick's book "Chaos: The Rise of a New Science", published in 1987 and widely known in the West, has a significant impact on the development of the methodology of both natural and human sciences, including the development of organization theory.

The issues of studying and solving the problem of chaos are very relevant for the development of the economy, especially the current state of the economy of Russia and the countries of the former USSR and Eastern Europe. The pace, depth and inclusiveness of the changes taking place in the economy and the life of society do not know analogues in the modern history of mankind.

According to Glick, the main catalyst for chaos theory was the research of meteorological scientist Edward Lawrence. In the early 1960s Lawrence developed a computer program that replicated the weather system. By dialing countless times the numbers that represented the initial state of the wind and temperature, Lawrence created a weather pattern as a result. He, like most scientists, believed that a small change in the initial conditions that he put into the computer would lead to small changes in the evolution of the entire system. To his surprise, he found that even the smallest changes caused amazing changes in the weather pattern. This is the first conclusion from chaos theory.

Such a phenomenon defied both intuition and what meteorologists had previously understood about their science. Intrigued by Lawrence's mystery, scientists from various fields of science began to experiment with copying other physical systems, and in the end they found identical phenomena. Infinitely small changes in the initial conditions could have profound effects on the evolution of the entire system.

What turned out to be true for the weather turned out to be equally true for most physical systems, as well as economic systems at both macro and micro levels.

The understanding that small changes can lead to radical consequences in the behavior of the system has significantly changed the way scientists see the world around them. The emphasis on predictability and control in the 19th century paved the way for understanding the power of randomness and chance in the late 20th century. In practice, the behavior of even relatively simple systems is mostly difficult to predict (let alone complex ones). This was the situation with the economic reforms in Russia in the 1990s.

But this does not mean that chaotic systems do not have any pattern. The second main conclusion of chaos theory is the following: despite the seemingly random behavior of the indicated systems, certain behavioral "patterns" can be predicted. After all, these systems do not cease to exist, certain ways of their development arise quite often. Adherents of chaos theory call such paths strange, attractive. For example, if meteorologists cannot say with certainty what the weather will be like on a particular day in the future, they can calculate the likelihood of a particular type of weather that will occur. Such paths allow scientists to determine, within broad statistical parameters, what the system is likely to do. But they cannot allow scientists to determine exactly when the system will do so. The causal accuracy of traditional physics has been replaced by a statistical estimate of probability.

In addition, the way in which scientists determine the predictable patterns of behavior in the system has become completely different. Instead of breaking the system into its component parts and analyzing the behavior of each of them separately, i.e. to act as they did in the time of F. Taylor, many scientists were forced to learn more holistic, i.e. holistic approach. They focus their attention mainly on the dynamics of the entire system. Without trying to explain how order fits into the parts of this system, they emphasize the result of the interaction of these parts as a whole. Renowned management theorist Luther Gyulik in the mid-1960s. wrote about this: firstly, people are not as simple as machines, and secondly, managers have to deal not only with specific workers, but also with groups in general, where there are so many social factors that it is difficult to simply identify them , not to mention accurately measuring their magnitude and significance. And finally, thirdly, countless environmental factors influence.

Therefore, both the theory of organization and the results of scientific research should be considered not as an absolute truth, but as tools. They help the manager predict what is likely to happen, thus helping them make better decisions.

Systems insight is the ability to understand the underlying relationships that influence the behavior of complex systems over time. It is they who should enable managers to “see integrity”.

For example, after several years of amazing success, the products of one company suddenly lost demand among buyers. Desperate to hold on, senior managers hired more salespeople and constantly tried to sell more of their products. These measures did increase product sales, as intended, but only for a time. For the company, a period came when its products were either in demand or sold with great difficulty, and this ultimately led it to bankruptcy.

By studying this case, specialists identify the source of the failure of the firm in the inability of managers to understand some basic feedback processes. In simple words, the high demand for products led to the fact that the company could not cope with the production of goods. Inadequate production resulted in large volumes of orders not being fulfilled and long delays in deliveries of goods. Customers have lost confidence, and this has led to a drop in sales.

Thus, there are a limited number of such feedback processes that operate in any organization and are called "prototype systems". In a certain sense, these are the organizational equivalents of the strange, inviting paths of chaos theory, i.e. basic patterns of behavior that emerge in all organizations all the time.

The history of the company we have considered illustrates a number of prototype systems, i.e. behavior patterns. One of them is defined by specialists as “growth limits”, when the process of growth creates conditions for the fall of one's own firm.

The firm's managers were so preoccupied with expanding sales and sales volume that they were unable to focus on the real solution to their problem - expanding production capacity in order to control delivery times.

The implementation in practice of the main provisions of the theory of systems, the theory of chaos and complexity allows us to formulate the essence of the new approach in the form of the following practical recommendations.

The crucial concept in systems theory is the system of leverage, i.e. the idea that small, well-thought-out actions can sometimes produce large, welcome improvements. Chaos theory also teaches that small changes can have a big impact on physical systems.

The emergence of management and organization theory was based on the use of concepts and methods developed for other disciplines. Moreover, in the process of development there is a kind of complementarity, mutual enrichment of the concepts and methods of various disciplines. Therefore, it is natural and logical to borrow some of the fundamental provisions of other disciplines into the methodological foundations of management and organization theory. On the other hand, the theory and practice of organizations, as a result of development, has also developed its own system of views on the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Fundamental work in systems theory, chaos theory, and complexity theory has influenced organization theory. 19th century science from the very beginning she taught to break the world into fragments, to divide the whole into parts in order to better exercise control over them.

An alternative to this is to consider the organization as a living organism. This requires a holistic, holistic approach that reflects the basic principles of systems theory and chaos theory - the need to consider the behavior of the system as a whole. The same is true for an organization: to understand the most important problems in managing an organization, one needs to look at the entire system that causes these problems.

The key points of the modern system of approaches to management and organization theory are the following fundamental provisions.

1. Application of a systematic approach. The fundamental discovery underlying all management science and organization theory is the conception of the organization as a system of the highest order of complexity, a system of which people are part. Any genuine system, mechanical, biological or human, is characterized by interdependence. The whole system does not necessarily improve if one function or part of it improves, becomes more efficient. The effect can be reversed: the system can be seriously damaged and even destroyed. Moreover, in some cases, in order to strengthen the system, it is necessary to weaken part of it - to make it less accurate or less effective. In any system, the work of the whole is important - it is the result of growth and dynamic balance, adaptation and integration, and not simple technical efficiency.

Thus, a systems approach is not a set of some guidelines or principles for managers, it is a way of thinking in relation to organization and management.

2. Application of a situational approach. The situational approach expanded the practical application of systems theory by identifying the main internal and external variables that affect organizations. The central point of the situational approach is the situation, i.e. a specific set of variables (circumstances) that strongly affect the organization at that particular time. In accordance with the situational approach, the entire organization of management within an enterprise is nothing more than a response to the impact of variables that are different in nature and characterize a particular situation. The organization and management methods are built in accordance with the situation in which the enterprise or institution is currently located. The situation is changing - specific tasks are changing, organization and methods are changing. Thus, unlike all previous methods of managing collective action, management is built into constant updating with a focus on a specific situation.

3. Modern science focuses on the chaos and complexity of the surrounding world. The world in which most of today's leaders live is often unpredictable, incomprehensible and out of control. Formation of chaos theory (i.e. transition from chaos to "chaos theory")

and its application in the management system of complex systems is a promising direction for improving the efficiency of organizations.

Summing up the consideration of the question of the formation of a new paradigm of management methodology and organization theory, we note that the most promising way to create such a paradigm is the synthesis, the integral unity of all methodological approaches. At the same time, it must be taken into account that the methodology of organization theory is a holistic, organic system, and not a random, arbitrary, eclectic set of any of its individual elements (methods, principles, etc.). In its application, this system is always modified depending on the specific conditions for its implementation, i.e. it must correspond to the subject of the theory of organization and to this particular stage of its development. And this means, in particular, that the methodological tools of the natural sciences cannot be mechanically transferred to the theory of organization without taking into account the specifics of the subject and the uniqueness of their application. The researcher should always be free to choose the necessary methods. It is unacceptable to impose any of them as the only true ones - the so-called methodological coercion, i.e. absolutization of individual methodological approaches.

The term "criminology" comes from two words: lat. crimen - crime and Greek. logos - science, teaching. For the first time the word "criminology" was used by the Italian lawyers R. Garofalo and P. Topi Nard, who in 1885 published a book with this title. As you can see, this is a relatively young science, which was developed mainly in the 20th century.

The logical development of criminological thought allows us to talk about criminology as a general theoretical science of crime, its causes and conditions accompanying it, the personality of those who commit crimes, as well as methods of controlling and combating crime (including the concept of combating crime and its prevention).

As we shall see later, criminology is closely related to other sciences. Therefore, when it comes to the subject of science, it is important to single out the main, essential thing that distinguishes it from sciences close to it. And the deeper a person studies crime, the more problems he encounters - problems that, at first glance, are far removed from crime.

At the same time, a broad interpretation of criminology as a science and, accordingly, its subject led researchers away from the fact that crime, being a social phenomenon, is “limited” by the framework of law and law. In criminal law, on the basis of the social experience of entire generations, a list of acts classified as criminal has been developed and enshrined in the law (criminal code). Arbitrary going beyond these boundaries is unacceptable, since it would lead to unrestricted arbitrariness.

Thus, the subject of the science of criminology is the very phenomenon (crime) in the unity and diversity of its essence and those factors that directly associated with him.

As we will see below, crime as a social and legal phenomenon has developed historically. A “stable core” of crime gradually formed: murders, thefts, violence, crimes against morality, against the state, against justice, and a number of others. To one degree or another, they are inherent in any socio-political system. Naturally, there are differences, but they appeared at the later stages of human development and depend on the political, economic, social, and national characteristics of certain states.

Subject of criminology

Let us now dwell on the subject of criminology in more detail. As can be seen from the definition of this science, the first and main part of its subject is crime.

There are countless definitions of crime. They bear the imprint of the philosophical views of authors of different schools and trends, legal and even religious views.

Crime is a form of social behavior of people that disrupts the normal functioning of the social organism. True, such violations are both immoral acts and what is called delinquent, deviant behavior. But of all violations, crime is the most dangerous for society.

Crime is a social and legal phenomenon. The mass (number) of crime is the sum of the crimes committed in a given society and in a given period, as provided for by the criminal code.

Note that crime is not just the sum of committed crimes, but a phenomenon that has its own laws of existence, associated with other social phenomena, and often determined by them.

In criminological literature, the origin of crime is associated with the period of the emergence of the state, law, social, property and class stratification of society.

The second component of the subject of criminology is causes of crime and the conditions that contribute to it. The problem of causality is one of the key and difficult problems in the social sciences, and of course in criminology. Its solution is largely determined by what philosophical views the scientist professes. At the same time, the problem of causality is not only theoretical, but also practical, since without studying the causes of such a phenomenon as crime and the conditions that contribute to it, it is impossible to counteract it on a scientific basis, with knowledge of the matter, and not only by the forces of one law enforcement system and with with the help of the law, but also setting in motion the economic, social and other levers that society and the state have.

The development of criminology and the introduction of its recommendations into practice have shown with sufficient persuasiveness the reality of establishing both causal relationships in the problem of crime and the conditions conducive to the commission of crimes. Practical law enforcement agencies have learned to identify these conditions and causes of crime, and science has armed them with a methodology for this work. The legislator fixed the obligation of law enforcement agencies to identify the causes and conditions for the commission of crimes and take (within their capabilities and competence) measures to prevent them.

At the dawn of the development of criminology, scientists represented the criminal as a type of personality, as if falling out of the human population. Some saw in the criminals people marked with the seal of Cain, in accordance with theological concepts. Others, observing the cruelty of many criminals or their commitment to a specific criminal trade, began to look for the reasons for this in the biological characteristics of people. Such an idea, which began with the teachings of phrenologists and received a finished form in the theories of C. Lombroso and his followers, was widespread for a long time. Still others constructed specific social types of criminals, rejecting the biological approach. The fourth sought a compromise between the sociological and biological approach to personality.

An in-depth study of the problem led many scientists to the fact that the concept of "the identity of the criminal" was questioned and the idea was put forward to abandon it, replacing it with a more extensive, but more accurate concept. the identity of the people who commit crimes.

Why did they come to this conclusion? Because the concept of “personality of the criminal” implies some kind of predetermined nature, gives rise to the idea that this person is already predisposed to crime. However, experience shows that in reality almost every crime can be committed by anyone. American criminologists, for example, say that every American has committed a crime at least once in his life. How to be in this case with the concept of "personality of the criminal"?

The classification of specific social types of criminals is very important. Murderers are different from thieves, representing a specific type of personality; fraudsters - from "white collars", although the latter may use fraudulent methods; embezzlers of property - from sexual rapists, etc. The study of the personality types of those who commit crimes requires the development of both general and individual measures and methods for preventing crime. However, one should keep in mind the temporary nature of being in the “uniform” of the identity of the criminal (otherwise, why talk about the correction and re-education of criminals). And if for criminal law a criminal is the one who committed an act containing all the elements of a crime, then for criminology the definition of the concept of “personality of a criminal” is a more difficult task, since it is associated with attributing a person to a certain stratum condemned by society of the same society, with the inevitable question : how long can such a state of a person last?

Fundamental for criminology, for a correct understanding of the relationship, is the fact that biological characteristics affect the type of human behavior (a choleric person in the same life situation will act differently than a phlegmatic or sanguine person, but in general their actions are also dictated by the degree of social education), not being the reasons his behavior, including criminal.

Finally, the subject of criminology includes crime prevention. The problem of crime prevention is inseparable from other components of the subject of criminology. It, as it were, completes everything that is connected with the presence of crime in human society and the fight against it. Understanding crime as a social phenomenon that reflects its inconsistency and features of functioning, the personality traits of those whom society itself, as a rule, turns into criminals, is the basis on which the theory of crime prevention is born. Therefore, the problem of crime prevention is considered at three levels: general social, special criminological and individual.

Because crime is social phenomenon, it is necessary to proceed from the fact that the fight against it can be successful only when the approach to it is comprehensive both in its study and in the development of preventive measures. Therefore, the fight against crime in a broad general social plan is the use of economic, socio-cultural, educational and, finally, legal measures. At the same time, it is obvious that the political atmosphere in society is something that can nullify any forms and methods of governing society, bring them to chaos and collapse, or, on the contrary, lead to the stabilization of the social (and state) organism.

Experience shows that the higher the level of the economic, technical, cultural state of a society, the more reason to believe that crime in such a society will be lower than in a society vegetating in economic ruin, social and political instability, in a society where concern for people is declared (even a speculative political slogan), but is not implemented.

Special criminological Crime prevention measures can be general or specific. Although they affect, say, the sphere of management, however, they are those that require not the improvement of its large blocks, but changes in some parts, for example, accounting and control over the expenditure of funds or materials in any branch of production or management, which will remove (for a certain period) the risk of theft or other abuse. Specific recommendations are even narrower in their focus, for example, measures to organize the protection of material assets at a particular enterprise.

Over the years of their “invasion” into social life, criminologists have developed many practically significant recommendations for the prevention of crimes in various industries and agriculture. Crime prevention measures concern both the organization of production processes (in terms of their criminogenic vulnerability), and educational work with different categories of workers, as well as methods of accounting, protection of material resources, etc.

These recommendations could only come into being as a result of a long and comprehensive study of specific branches of the economy. This direction in criminology is inexhaustible, since the forms of management, their structures change, and the conditions conducive to the commission of crimes change accordingly, which means that preventive measures must be improved.

Prevention measures are also different for different types of crimes (for example, for mercenary and violent crimes, murders and rapes, thefts and fraud, etc.). Blocks of crime also require specific measures (say, organized crime - some measures, recidivism - others, women's - third, etc.). Within these blocks, there are various and numerous types of specific crimes that require appropriate measures to prevent them.

The division of crime into levels also determines the features of individual prevention, because individual crimes are committed by specific people, preventive (educational) work with which requires a purely individual approach. In this part, criminology comes into contact primarily with such a science as psychology. It is no coincidence that legal psychology has now won a firm place among the legal sciences.

The theory of crime prevention is inextricably linked (like other components of criminology) with the problem of predicting crime, and planning for preventive measures.

Crime prevention can and should be planned. Planning preventive work in the state has its own characteristics. There are no unequivocal recommendations in the fight against crime and there cannot be. Unfortunately, sometimes specific advice and instructions come down to slogans, appeals: to strengthen preventive work, to oblige the prosecutor to strengthen supervision over compliance with laws, to oblige the Ministry of Internal Affairs to develop plans for strengthening individual prevention by the efforts of district inspectors, etc. with crime in our state, turning into the presence of empty, uncontrollable and impossible "plans". Moreover, our practice has suffered and continues to suffer from unjustified megalomania and global plans.

Concluding the consideration of the subject of criminology, we note that it also includes the problem of the victim of a crime. In science, this direction is called "victimology".

Studies show that the behavior of a criminal is often determined both by the behavior of his victim and by special qualities, as well as by the relationship of the criminal with the victim, which developed earlier or during the collision. Often, criminal behavior is provoked by the negative behavior of the victim. In crimes where there are motives of an interpersonal order, this can be seen especially clearly.

The development of victimology has led to the emergence of the term "victimization". This is the process of becoming a victim of a crime of a specific person, as well as a certain community of people. Victimization differs from crime in that it is a set of victimization processes.

Criminology system

We can talk about the system of science, that is, about the list and order of consideration of problems, say, from the most general, fundamental to specific ones. We can also talk about the system of a course or a textbook, where individual problems of science are covered in the most convenient order for studying.

Criminology should be approached from the same position. In the legal sciences, which are closely connected with legislation, the system of science often coincides with the system of legislation. As you know, the science of criminal law consists of the General and Special (special) parts, respectively, the criminal codes have a General and a Special part. In both cases, the General Part sets out general theoretical, basic questions for science and practice, and the Special Part indicates the types of crimes, their specific composition and penalties for them.

For criminology, the problem of dividing into two parts is more arbitrary than it seems at first glance. First of all, because many of the questions that would seem rightly attributed to the problems of the Special Part, for example, recidivism, are in themselves of general theoretical significance. These types of crime are filled with their own deep theoretical content, which allows, strictly speaking, to divide them into general and specific (special, special).

In particular, we can say that criminology systematizes crimes: 1) according to the areas of activity of criminals; 2) the degree of their organization; 3) the composition of the criminal contingent; 4) the reasons not only for the crimes themselves, but also for the social distribution of criminals that is observed in the country.

If we take as a basis approaches to criminology as a science, reflected in previously published courses, textbooks, monographs, special articles, then in general criminology system as follows.

First, the concepts, subject, tasks of science are considered; followed by the history and state of criminology as a science; then its key problems are analyzed (crime, causes and conditions of crime, the identity of the offender, methods of studying, predicting and preventing crime, including planning to combat crime); further analyzed the most dangerous and widespread types of crime.

Criminology and other sciences

Already from acquaintance with the subject of criminology, it is clear that this science is interdisciplinary, that is, closely related to some other sciences. These are legal and social sciences in the broad sense of the word.

First of all, consider the relationship of criminology with the legal sciences. In the first place here is the connection of criminology with criminal law.

Both criminal law and criminology study crime and crime. But they do it differently. Criminal law is the science of responsibility for committing crimes. Therefore, she studies crime from a legal standpoint as a concept and a set of features (composition) of a certain act of unlawful behavior. Criminal law also studies the punishment imposed by the court for the commission of a crime, mitigating and aggravating circumstances, determines the principles of sentencing and release from it.

Criminal law does not refer to those phenomena, events and actions of a person that precede the crime; he is not directly interested in the causes of crime and the conditions conducive to the commission of crimes. And the identity of the offender is reduced in criminal law to the concept of the subject of the crime, which is characterized mainly by two properties: age and sanity (plus the signs of the so-called special subject). The social, moral and psychological characteristics of the criminal remain outside the boundaries of criminal law. But everything that is not included in the subject of criminal law is just of interest to the criminologist, in particular the mechanism of criminal behavior and the causes of the unlawful development of events.

The organic connection of criminology with criminal law lies in the fact that criminal law defines the boundaries, the scope of the subject of criminology. After all, the list of criminal acts is determined by the criminal code. Namely, this circle of acts is studied by criminology.

Criminology is closely related to science of criminal procedure, studying the procedure of preliminary investigation and judicial consideration of the case. The criminal procedure legislation contains a direct prescription: the investigator, the prosecutor, the court are obliged in each criminal case to identify the causes and conditions that contribute to the commission of crimes, and to propose measures aimed at eliminating them.

Another legal science criminalistics, which studies the methodology, technique and tactics of investigating crimes, receives from criminology data on the state of crime, the features of the mechanisms, methods of committing various crimes and the personality traits of criminals. Forensic science uses this information to develop the most effective methods for solving crimes. The inextricable link between criminology and theory of operational-search activity, which makes it possible to study crime in a certain sense "from the inside" with the help of special tools and methods.

Criminology is associated with criminal law, studying the principles and conditions for the appointment and serving of sentences. Many crimes are committed in places of deprivation of liberty or by persons released from prison, so the interaction of criminologists and specialists in penitentiary law is very useful.

There are several more sciences, usually referred to the legal cycle. This is forensic statistics, forensic medicine and forensic psychiatry. And criminology has direct contacts with them. So, she makes extensive use of judicial statistics. And the developments of forensic psychiatrists help criminologists to get a better idea of ​​the personality traits of various categories of criminals.

In the course of the development of criminological teachings, proposals were made to expand its subject by studying phenomena related to crime (social anomalies): alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, suicide, etc. But the point of view prevailed, limiting the subject of criminology only to the analysis of crime. Thus, its connection with the legal sciences was preserved and strengthened.

But, as noted, criminology is no less closely connected with sciences that do not have a legal orientation. First of all, this , studying society in the process of its functioning. Sociology has several branches: the sociology of the family, the sociology of labor, the sociology of sports, and others. Criminology can rightly be called sociology of crime. In passing, we note that if in Russia criminology is studied in law schools, then the Anglo-American tradition consists in teaching criminology at the faculties of sociology.

Next, we point out the close relationship of criminology with legal psychology, the subject of which is the inner life of man, his behavior in nature and society. One can rightfully call criminology, or at least a certain part of it the psychology of the offender.

So, when clarifying the relationship of criminology with related sciences, we come to the conclusion that this science is complex. It is at the intersection of jurisprudence with sociology and psychology and uses data from all these and other sciences.

It should be noted that among specialists in the field of criminal law there is a point of view that, contrary to the facts of reality and development of world science not only the independence of criminology as general theoretical the science of crime, but also as a science in general. These scholars believe that criminology is part of criminal law or part of sociology. In our opinion, the origins of such views date back to the mid-1920s, when the question of the causes of crime under socialism was resolved "completely, unambiguously and definitively." Short, little binding appeals within the framework of the doctrine of crime in criminal law were enough. Now such judgments look like an anachronism. Criminology, its findings allow a deeper understanding of the institutions of criminal, penal, procedural law, criminology, in general, the practice of combating crime and does not at all belittle them and do not divide the sciences, as the “liquidators” and opponents of criminology as a science claimed.

Criminology really came out of criminal law (although one can say that it also came out of general sociology - such a point of view exists, as, by the way, they say about “medical criminology” and its other types, since scientists dealt with the problem of crime different specialties, bringing their own to this problem), but, having left, she got the opportunity of her own development. Having become independent, it remained closely connected with criminal law and other legal sciences, as well as with sociology, philosophy and medicine, especially psychiatry, and with a number of other sciences. In the context of the rapid development and differentiation of various sciences that have a common root, this is a completely natural phenomenon.

2. The subject of criminology. . . . . . . . 4 a) crime. . . . . . . . . 4 b) causes of crime. . . . . . . 7

c) the identity of the perpetrator. . . . . . .
11 d) warning the offender. . . . . .
12
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . .
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Bibliography. . . .. . . . . .
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INTRODUCTION

Criminology is an independent interdisciplinary science with its own history, using original research methods and having an extensive network of institutions and organizations around the world.

A general idea of ​​the content of this science can be obtained by understanding the meaning of its name, which consists of two parts: the Latin word "crime" (crime) and the Greek word "logos"
(teaching). The literal translation of the combination of these two words into Russian means "the doctrine of crime." Taking into account the fact that the term "crime" is almost equivalent to the term "crime", more precisely, we can designate criminology as "the science of crime".
Moreover, if criminal law studies crime, responsibility and punishment for them in legislative form and law enforcement practice, then criminology studies crime, its causes and conditions, the identity of the offender and the prevention of crimes as mass social phenomena.

Thus, it is possible to define criminology purely from a practical point of view, as the science of crime and methods of its prevention. But this
is a very general concept. More specifically, we can say that criminology studies crime, types of crime, crimes; their causes, other types of their relationships with various phenomena and processes; the effectiveness of the measures taken to combat crime. On this basis, criminologists develop recommendations for improving the fight against crime.

It is important to note that understanding the social nature of crime, knowledge of the causes and conditions for committing various crimes, the characteristics of persons who have broken the law, and the mechanism of individual criminal behavior are important not only for successful preventive activities.
Criminological knowledge helps to identify already committed crimes, to identify and expose criminals, to correctly determine the punishment for each of them, to find the most effective ways and means of individual correction and re-education. Knowledge of criminology is necessary not only for internal affairs officers, but also for employees of courts, prosecutors, justice bodies and other categories of employees who, to one degree or another, are faced with the problems of offenses, their causes and conditions.

The science of criminology has a complex structure. In my work, I want to consider the basic issue - the concept of criminology and its subject, because. these questions are the basic questions of any science.

1. The concept of criminology.

For the first time the term "CRIMINOLOGY" appeared on the pages of the press at the end of the nineteenth century. At first, it was understood as the problems of etiology (the study of the causes of crime). What, in particular, can be read in the book by Topinard and Garofalo "Criminology". At about the same time, legal experts formulated a number of views on the essence and subject of criminology, which formed the basis for the creation of various schools of criminology that still exist today. In general, they can be reduced to five main areas:

Representatives of the first direction do not single out criminology as an independent scientific discipline, but consider it a part of criminal law, if it is considered in the broad sense of the word. At present, such views are of historical interest only.

Representatives of the second direction include the study of the causes of crime, methods of combating it, problems of criminal policy, penology and criminal law. This concept arose in the early years of our century.
Its founder was the Austrian lawyer Hans Gross (1847-1915). He believed that criminology includes criminal anthropology, criminal sociology, forensic science, criminal psychology, criminal policy, penology, criminal law and a number of other branches of science. The idea of ​​G. Gross to unite all "auxiliary sciences in relation to criminal law with the inclusion of the science of investigation and penology" into a single system of criminology was reflected in the views of scientists of the second half of the 20th century, which, in our opinion, caused a lot of confusion.

The third direction, the creator of which was List (1851-1919), the most famous representative of the sociological school of criminal law, considers criminology as the science of crime and its causes, along with criminology, criminal law and criminal policy.

As you can see, the last two directions are united by the same understanding of the content of criminology and forensic science, which is explained by their common environment of origin. Both of them arose due to the need to meet the needs of practice to know the causes of such a dangerous social phenomenon as crime, and to develop effective methods to combat it. Moreover, at the time of their emergence, they did not have a specific area of ​​research, which greatly influenced the subsequent approach to the problem of the relationship between criminology and forensic science.

The fourth direction reflects current trends in the development of criminological research. It considers criminological problems in connection with penitentiary ones, i.e. much attention is paid to the study of the identity of the offender, incl. persons with deviant (deviant) behavior and the measures applied to them. This approach is most widely used in the US.

The last - the fifth direction considers criminology as the science of crime and its causes. This trend is characteristic of the European legal school.

As for the Russian jurists, they, at present, adhering to conservative views, have slightly changed their views on the subject of the discipline being studied. In a number of textbooks, its main components were called: crime, the causes and conditions of crime, the identity of the offender, crime prevention.

Analyzing different views on the concept and subject
Criminology, I would define Criminology as a science that studies crime, its causes, the identity of the offender, and also develops measures to prevent crime.

2. Subject of Criminology

Based on the above definition, the subject of study of criminology includes four components:

Crime

Causes of crime

Identity of the perpetrator

Crime prevention measures.

Crime

The main element of the science of criminology is crime as a historically changeable social and criminal law phenomenon, which is an integral set of many crimes committed in specific historical conditions over a certain period of time. The concept of crime covers the totality of crimes considered in the form of facts of social reality, and not legal structures such as, for example, corpus delicti. Offenses that do not form the composition of crimes, but are closely related to them, are considered in the analysis of the causes and conditions of various types of crimes.

In this real social existence, crime is subject to certain patterns and is characterized by such quantitative and qualitative indicators as level, structure and dynamics.

The level of crime is a quantitative characteristic, measured in absolute terms by the sum of committed crimes and their participants (perpetrators), as well as in coefficients or crime indices. Official statistics use two indicators:

Number of registered crimes (and their subjects) and

According to the criminal record.

The level is calculated from the number of crimes committed in a particular territory for a certain period of time per a given number of inhabitants, for example, per 1,000, 10,000 or 100,000. The level of crime in this interpretation is called the crime rate.
It is calculated by the formula:

K \u003d P X 1,000 (10,000 or 100,000)

where K is the crime rate,

P - number of crimes

H is the population size (as a whole or aged 14 and over).

The coefficients make it possible to compare the intensity of crime in different administrative-territorial units with different populations, as well as in different periods in the same district, region, taking into account changes in population.

The structure of crime reveals the internal content of crime, the ratio of groups or individual types of crimes in their total number for a certain period of time in a certain territory, identified according to various grouping characteristics: criminal law, criminological, socio-demographic, etc. From what is the structure of crime, the “direction of the main blow” in the fight against it should also depend.

The structure indicator determines the proportion (share) of certain crimes (or criminals), which are called types of crime, in the total set of crimes (criminals), taken as 100%.

In my work, I want to dwell on such indicators of the structure of crime as its "geography", "ecology" and "topography".

The geography of crime deals with the problems of the spatial and temporal distribution of deviance, delinquency and crime
(places of crime, places of residence of criminals) in the world, parts of the world, states, cities and in rural areas (for example, in areas bordering the former republics of the USSR, etc.). She also studies the problems of having a sense of security (the question of the population's fear of crime, attitudes towards criminal justice, the risk of becoming a victim of crime). She also finds out the influence of the social structure of a particular area on the level and nature of crime, establishes the limits and directions for the movement of criminals (from the place of residence to the scene of the crime and vice versa), studies regional differences in reactions to crime.

In contrast, the ecology of crime explores the interaction of the environment, climate, natural landscape, flora and fauna, building structure - on the one hand, and human experiences.
(victimization - fear of crime) and criminal behavior - on the other.

The topography of crime focuses on the analysis of crime scenes, which can be inside buildings, apartments, shops, hotels, and hospitals.

The last characteristic of crime is the dynamics of crime, that is, the change in its level and structure over a particular period of time (one year, three years, five years, ten years, etc.), i.e. the rate and direction of changes in the main features of the totality of criminal acts. Analysis of the dynamics of crime in scientific and practical terms has at least two goals:

1. Give an idea of ​​changes in indicators over the past period, identify trends and patterns of these changes;

2. Based on them, to make a forecast about the possible nature of crime in the near and distant future, which is the basis for the necessary optimal criminological planning of measures to combat it.

Causes of crime

Causes of crime - are a set of socio-negative economic, demographic, ideological, socio-psychological, political, organizational and managerial phenomena that directly generate, produce, reproduce
(determine) crime as its consequence.

Along with the actual causes of crime, the subject of criminological analysis is its conditions. These are phenomena and processes that in themselves do not give rise to crime, but, accompanying the causes and influencing them, ensure their action, leading to a certain consequence (a set of acts that violate the criminal law).

The study of the causes of crime reveals the nature of this socially negative phenomenon, explains its origin, shows what the existence of crime depends on, what contributes to its preservation, currently its revival, and what counteracts this. Only on the basis of such knowledge can an effective fight against crime be ensured: to foresee the changes taking place in it, to determine and implement the necessary measures to prevent criminal manifestations and reduce them.

Any phenomenon, including crime, has not only a number of
(hierarchy) of causes, but also a number (hierarchy) of conditions that contribute to the onset of this phenomenon. Some conditions are concomitant in nature - they do not have a direct impact on the commission of crimes (for example, night time when committing theft, robbery, robbery). Other conditions are more significant (disorganization of leisure, poor educational work, lack of control, which contribute to hooliganism and offenses in the sphere of interpersonal relations in the border outpost team). Of particular importance are the necessary conditions, without which the cause cannot give rise to a consequence, for example, shortcomings in the protection of weapons and ammunition in case of their theft.

In order to understand the variety of causes and conditions of crime, to more fully identify them in practice and purposefully carry out the necessary measures to eliminate and neutralize them, their proper differentiation and classification are needed. Every branch of criminological thought
(schools) conduct them according to various criteria, based primarily on their subject of study. Russian criminologists use classifications according to various criteria.

1. Classification “according to the level of action (subordination)”. From this point of view, several types of this approach should be distinguished. The first one:

Causes and conditions of crime in general as a certain social phenomenon that exists in specific social conditions and manifests itself in the totality of socially dangerous acts - crimes;

Causes and conditions of various groups (types, categories) of crimes that form the structural units of crime (intentional and careless, violent and mercenary, etc.);

Causes and conditions of certain types of crimes - murders, hooliganism, military, etc.

Another type of level approach involves identifying the causes and conditions of crime (in general and its individual structural divisions) at the level of the whole society (macro level), its individual social groups and spheres of public life, and at the level of an individual.

These levels are interconnected, but the content of the causes and conditions of crime at each of them is not identical.

At the general social level, we identify the most common causes and conditions with which the very existence of crime in given historical conditions is associated.

At the level of social groups, the causes and conditions characteristic of these groups and collectives are recorded.

At the individual level, we are talking about the causes and conditions of a particular crime committed by an individual, there is a lot of individual, subjective and situational, sometimes random (personal characteristics, her individual life experience, connections, acquaintances, influences, coincidences, etc.). At the same time, the general social causes and conditions of crime are transformed into individual ones, and the most typical individual causes and conditions are “added up” into general social ones.

The study of the causes and conditions at the general social and group levels is of scientific and cognitive importance and serves the practice for the development and organization of a system of social prevention of crime within the framework of the entire state, its individual regions, social groups and collectives.

Identification of the causes and conditions of a particular crime (individual level) is subordinated directly to the practical - the correct solution of each specific case, individualization to the subject of interest and elimination of the circumstances that contribute to the commission of this crime. The causes and conditions of a particular crime (individual circumstances of its commission) may be atypical. However, in individual cases there is always something in common. Therefore, the scientific and practical study of the causes and conditions of crime is based on the generalization of data obtained from various sources.

2. Of great practical importance is the classification of the causes and conditions of crime according to their content. There are determinants of crime:

political;

Economic;

Ideological;

Socio-psychological;

Organizational and managerial.

3. It must be emphasized that all the determinants of crime manifest themselves in a similar capacity through psychology, the consciousness of people, forming or supporting, reviving or strengthening anti-social views, aspirations, motives. Therefore, in the end, crime is always associated with socio-psychological determinants.

Socio-psychological phenomena - views, traditions, habits - are often called the subjective determinants of crime, and everything that is outside the individual and affects his psychology - its objective determinants. This is a psychological classification:

Objective are the causes and conditions that exist independently of the will and consciousness of people (the historically determined level of development of society, the economy; natural disasters and other natural phenomena, etc.)

The subjective causes and conditions of crime are those determinants that depend on the activities of people, are, as a rule, the result of shortcomings in this activity, errors and omissions (planning, cultural and educational work, etc.)

4. The causes and conditions of crime can also be distinguished by the direction, the mechanism of their action.

Some of them determine the unfavorable moral formation of the personality (deficiencies in family, school, military education, the negative influence of the environment, etc.)

Others are associated with conditions and situations external to the individual that contribute to, facilitate or even provoke the manifestation of antisocial views and motives in a specific criminal offense (poor security of weapons and equipment, alcohol abuse, etc.)

The first group of determinants is more related to the causes of crime, while the second group is predominantly the conditions for committing crimes.

In turn, the conditions are classified into:

Formative (associated with contradictions in society) and

Facilitating (deficiencies in the prevention system and lack of organization and management).

5. And the last classification is proposed in terms of temporal and spatial prevalence. Here they differ:

Causes and conditions that operate relatively permanently and temporarily (due to one-time circumstances or events);

Throughout the state, its individual regions and specific zones (republics, port cities, resort areas adjacent to the state border, etc.), as well as having a local, local character.

Identity of the perpetrator

Among the most complex, controversial and least developed criminological problems is the question of the identity of the offender.
The significance of this problem is expressed primarily in the fact that a crime as an act of a human act and the will of a particular person is largely derived from his essential characteristics and features. Figuratively speaking, a crime and a criminal are those cells of a peculiar organism of crime, the study and knowledge of which can provide criminological material for subsequent work on crime prevention.

The identity of the offender is studied as a system of socio-demographic, socio-role, socio-psychological properties of the subjects of the crime. With regard to the personality of the offender, the correlation of the biological and social in it is considered.

Identification of the personality of a criminal from the whole mass of people is carried out on the basis of two criteria: legal and social (socio-psychological). Based only on the legal criterion, the identity of the offender is defined as the person who committed the crime. However, in this judgment one can see elements of a tautology. This notion of the identity of the offender "has a formal connotation." Therefore, the legal criterion must, if necessary, be supplemented by a social (socio-psychological) criterion, according to which the personality of the criminal is inherent in one or another degree of antisocial orientation (orientation) or, at least, individual antisocial features.

This provision applies not only to malicious, but also to the so-called random crime, as well as to persons who commit crimes in a state of passion and even through negligence. This also includes the study of those persons who have not yet violated the criminal law, but due to anti-social views and habits, manifested, for example, in the form of the commission of relevant administrative offenses, may embark on a criminal path. That is, the subject of the branch of scientific knowledge under consideration includes the personality of the offender, understood in the sense indicated above and including not only the actual offender, but also other categories of persons subjected to targeted preventive effects.

In general, data on personal characteristics in relation to the subjects of all crimes and separately by their types contain significant information about the causes of crimes, which can be used in determining measures aimed at preventing new crimes.

crime prevention

Everything that was discussed above about crime, its causes, the identity of the offender ultimately pursues the goal of mastering modern criminological knowledge about crime prevention.

At its core, crime prevention or otherwise called crime prevention (these two terms (from the point of view of etymology) are identical and are used interchangeably) is a specific area of ​​social regulation, management and control that has a multi-level character and pursues the goal of combating crime based on identification and elimination of its causes and conditions, other determinants.

Criminology studies crime prevention as a complex dynamic system. Its functioning is connected with the solution of both general tasks of social development and specialized tasks in the field of combating negative phenomena. As a rule, in criminology, the preventive system of state and public measures aimed at eliminating or neutralizing, weakening the causes and conditions of crime, deterring crime and correcting the behavior of offenders, is analyzed by: direction, mechanism of action, stages, scale, content, subjects and other parameters .

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it should be noted that all the considered basic elements of the subject of criminology, firstly, are organically interconnected, and secondly, they are studied not only by this science. For example, crime may attract the attention of sociologists in their study of social deviance; the problem of the offender's personality has, along with criminological, forensic, operational-search and other aspects; issues related to the prevention of crime through the appointment and execution of punishment are studied in criminal and corrective labor law.

But the specificity of the criminological approach to the study of the above phenomena is manifested in the following:

1. Criminology studies crime and related phenomena as a social and legal reality.

2. The specificity of criminological knowledge also lies in the fact that it places a pronounced emphasis on the causal explanation of the social and legal phenomena and processes studied by this science.

3. At the head of criminological research is the task of crime prevention.

4. Criminology takes part in the development of not only legal, but also other means of combating crime, its prevention.
(socio-economic, cultural and educational, etc.).

Some domestic scientists supplement the subject of criminology with the history of criminological science, the organization and methods of studying crime, criminological forecasting, etc. At present, this question remains open and we can only observe its solution by defining the well-established and tested idea of ​​criminology as a social and legal science that studies the essence, patterns and forms of manifestation of crime, its causes and other determinants, the personality of the offender and other categories. offenders who may embark on a criminal path, as well as a crime prevention system, and on this basis develops a general theory of the preventive effect on crime and measures of criminological prevention.

Bibliography
1. Criminology M., Ed. Moscow University, 1984;
2. Criminology M., Legal Literature, 1988;
3. Holist B. Criminology. Main problems. M., Legal literature,
1980;
5. Chetverikov V.S. Criminology. M., INFRA-M, 1996.

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Struchkov N.A. "The problem of the identity of the offender" L., 1983
Antonyan Yu.M. The study of the identity of the offender M., 1982, p.45

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