What language constructs does the client use to describe the world? Big encyclopedia of oil and gas.

Constructs have been defined as sentences or groups of sentences by which the client constructs and categorizes the world. We can say that this is a piece of the client’s worldview. Due to the complexity of the world and the uniqueness of the individual, each client has his own worldview and his own designs. Before applying theories and methods to change a client's psyche, Kelly required an understanding of not only the client and his problems, but also what constructs he uses to describe the problem.
The Rep Test is a tool developed by Kelly to determine a client's personality constructs. This test (Table 6.2) helps determine how the client thinks about people significant to him. All psychology and psychotherapy revolves around interpersonal relationships. The language constructs used by the client to discuss the people around him are extremely important for assessing possible future actions.
Table 6.2
“STORAGE” TEST (shortened and adapted)

SIMILAR AND OPPOSITE
Make triplets of these people (as shown below) and for each trio, ask yourself the following three questions: Which two of these people are most similar? In what ways are they similar to each other and different from the third? How is the remaining third different? Record your answers in two columns labeled “Similar” and “Opposite.” This shortened version of the test uses twenty sets of three:

9	12	1		1	2	3
2	10	7		2	3	4
8	10	12		5	6	7
1	2	7		6	7	8
3	4	5		8	9	10
2	11	12		9	10	11
3	7	9		10	11	12
1	2	4		11	12	1
6	7	9		12	1	2
8	9	1		4	5	11

When sorting and defining responses, it is important that they are not artificial, vague, or defined by a role name. High-quality and specific language constructions are the most effective.
LIST OF ROLES
Write down the names of the following people:

1. Favorite teacher (or teacher who taught your favorite subject).
2. Unloved teacher (or who taught an unloved subject).
3. Your husband (wife) or current boyfriend (girlfriend).
4. A person of the opposite sex whom you have loved in the past.
5. A person of the opposite sex whom you have not loved in the past.
6. Your mother.
7. Your father.
8. Your sister (or someone who played a similar role),
9. Your brother (or someone who has played a similar role).
10. The boss you loved.
11. The boss you didn't like.
12. A person you know well and with whom you are in conflict, or someone who does not love you.

There must be 12 different names.

Study the designs. The words from both columns are part of a system of constructs that describe the world. There is no scoring at this elementary level. Simply, a psychologist (sometimes with the help of a client) studies and classifies the proposed designs. It is often possible to systematize answers according to the polar principle: good - bad, high - low, kind - mean. After all, people tend to think differently from others in a very specific way. This test helps the psychologist understand how the client thinks.

When filling out this test, the client needs to make a list of people who are significant to him (father, mother, teacher, boss). Then you need to compare these people: how they are similar and how they are different. If a client says, for example, that the boss and sister are similar in that they are both “kind,” then the word “kind” will be a linguistic construct that is important to the client. Another client may use the word “wealthy” or “poor” for the same couple. Through a series of such comparisons, a fairly stable set of constructs is revealed that the client uses to describe significant others. A list of personal constructs equips the psychologist with knowledge of key aspects of the client's worldview.
In one of the cases of using this test, key constructions also appeared: “bright - boring”, “controlling - helping”, “warm - cold”. In this case, these words belonged to a successful social service employee who had tensions with the controller and, according to colleagues, he took the affairs of clients too personally. He often had arguments with the controller, and as a result, his relations with the rest of the staff went wrong. And the list of these key ones is a hint for the psychologist in which direction to lead the psychotherapeutic process.
Practicing therapists widely use standardized tests of intelligence, personality, vocational interests, etc. Kelly certainly recognizes the value of tests, but he notes that these tests were constructed with reference to some external standard and may not be accurate. reflects the client's worldview and his linguistic constructions. From here the therapist can take the wrong path in diagnosis and treatment. On the other hand, a test is an objective source of information about the client. Kelly notes that “...testing expands the horizons of the psychologist. But psychologists sometimes get too carried away with solving obvious, obvious problems, forgetting what type of client they are dealing with. How a psychologist perceives a client often affects his judgment. Tests are a good way to avoid bias and look at a situation from a balanced point of view.”
A competent psychologist must have a good knowledge of tests and their potential.
The given test is just one of the opportunities to understand the client’s language constructs. You can cite another Kelly saying - “Ask the client.”
If you listen carefully to the client, you may find that some key words appear again and again in the client's speech. These repeated words are the key to the client’s worldview, his system of constructions. Consider the following passage:
Client 1: I went to the exam with my head held high. I thought I knew everything because I studied so hard. But it turned out that I failed. It's a shame! I didn't expect this. I'm just a pompous fool.
Client 2: I went to the exam with my head held high. I thought I knew everything because I studied so hard. But it turned out that I failed. Apparently I didn't teach well enough. Next time you will need to ask for help. It may even be good that this happened at the beginning of the semester. I'll have time to learn everything.
In the two examples given, the same situation is constructed differently by clients. The key constructions of the first client are “offensive”, “didn’t learn”, “complete fool”. The second client no longer says that he “didn’t learn,” but recognizes the need to study even harder and seek help. And the intention to “learn it” immediately appears. The two construction systems are very different and require different approaches from the psychologist. A conversation with a client gives the psychologist information about his personal system of linguistic constructions. You just need to be able to listen carefully and find constantly repeating key patterns. If you learn to work within the client’s construct system, then language and semantic barriers disappear and the process of psychiatric care proceeds more smoothly.
To practice, you can tape a conversation with a client or friend, and then make a list of key constructions that describe different situations. A set of repeated keywords shows up quite quickly. It is very important to identify your own stamps and designs. Using a test and studying language patterns, you can get additional information about the client, in particular, notice what you previously missed.
It is very important to have an understanding of rigid and loose structures used by the client in different life conditions. The client usually uses loose designs when it comes to people and tight designs when it comes to money. A person may show feelings of guilt towards family, hostility towards the owner, and arrogance towards foreigners (Kelly, 1955). Rigid and loose designs can be linked to the decision-making style described in Chapter II. A person who shows uncritical adherence to one theory and point of view, constantly repeating key words, is a person who thinks using rigid constructions. Free constructions are characteristic of a person who constantly changes the direction of thoughts and demonstrates a lack of commitment. Kelly notes that “tight” and “loose” people require different therapeutic approaches. The goal of a person, according to Kelly, is to develop structures that will be sufficiently flexible and capable of responding to life changes. Kelly believes that a client may have rigid constructs in one area, but loose and receptive (or intentional) in other areas. Therefore, different styles of therapeutic intervention are required for the same client. Rigid structures are presented in the following judgments:
1. No, you cannot say that. My husband is a good, godly man. He won't do anything wrong. And the daughter got what she deserved.
2. No, this is not child abuse. This is discipline. This is how it was in my family. In addition, your social workers should not interfere in our personal lives.
Rigid constructions of reality are usually “rigidly logical” and will always explain anything, anytime. Your task is to make these designs more flexible, free and help the client look at the situation differently. A receptive construct in this case might look like this: “I still think discipline is important, but I think we were too harsh with it. Role training and new skills gave me the opportunity to look at the situation in a new way.” Instead of a rigid design, a new, more reasonable and balanced style appeared.
For contrast, here are examples of too loose designs:
1. I don’t see why a schedule was needed... I like spontaneity. We go with the whole family whenever we want...
2. I myself am surprised how I missed the last meeting. It seems like I forgot... This always happens, I was even fired once for being too late. Our family is always better at doing what we like. I think that the problem with Jane will sort itself out if you don't twitch or worry.
Spontaneity is sometimes good, but sometimes it leads to immobilization, which leads to nothing but distraction.
An example of receptive constructions might look like this: “Now I try to coordinate my actions with my family. We can all sit together and plan, but I still won't let the plan dominate me. You were right, teenagers like Jane need some rules. After several conversations, she admitted that she now feels more attention. Obviously, she was used to the fact that I had paid little attention to her before.”
It is clear that the client has become more intelligent and focused in making decisions. The purpose of assessing a client is not to create a label for the client, but to understand how the client thinks and his attitude towards the problem. Moreover, the idea of ​​receptive, changeable designs is the exact opposite of the concept that the client “so-and-so” should do “so-and-so.” “Diagnostics and Statistics Manual” (RDS-Z) - see table. 6.3 is an example of a rating system that is based on a purely medical diagnosis of the client; it does not mention the client's history at all and does not talk about further actions. The basis of the Kelly assessment is actions that are aimed at changing the client’s thinking.
We present RDS-3 here because the assessment process is a very significant point in the practice of psychotherapy. Kelly's approach does not contradict this framework, but rather helps you gain a deeper understanding of the client's diagnosis when working with RDS-C.
On the other hand, RDS-Z is not suitable for every psychologist. Specific diagnosis “by illness” does not fit with some psychotherapeutic directions (Rodzherovskaya, behaviorism). Whether you agree with the concept of RDS-Z or not, it is very useful to get acquainted with it - in order to develop your position for future practice.

Table 6.3
DIAGNOSTICS AND STATISTICS MANUAL (RDS-Z)
RDS-C - disease definition as an assessment problem. In therapeutic psychiatry, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual issued by the American Psychiatric Association (1980) is most often used for diagnosis. Check it out:
The RDS-C Diagnostic List includes the following categories (for clarity; some sub-items are also provided):
1. Disorders that usually manifest themselves in infancy, childhood, and adolescence: mental retardation, eating disorders (anorexia, bulimia).
2. Organic mental disorders.
3. Functional mental disorders.
4. Schizophrenic disorders.
5. Paranoid disorders.
6. Affective disorders (mania, depression).
7. Anxiety (phobia, neurosis).
8. Somatic disorders (transfer, hypochrondiosis).
9. Dissociative disorders (hysterical neuroses, split personality).
10. Psychosexual disorders (transsexualism, sexual sadism).
11. Factitious disorders (the client feigns a disorder).
12. Difficulties in adapting to the environment.
13. Personality disorders (borderline states, passive-aggressive personality).

The patient is assessed along five “axes”, in accordance with the diagnostic information. Axis 1 refers to the problem presented, axis 2 to long-term disorders; together they are associated with the “mental disorders” mentioned above. Axis 3 refers to physical impairment, axis 4 to the burden of psychosocial stressors, and axis 5 to “highest level of adaptive functioning” in the past year. The client in Chapter V would have received this score: Axis 1-296.24 - general depression, single episode with psychotic features. Axis 2: 300.40 - depressive neurosis. Axis 3: malnutrition. Axis 4: 6 - extreme severity (loss of parents and divorce). Axis 5: 4 - adapted weakness (moderate weakening in professional and social activities).
This technique has been criticized because it does not say anything about what the therapist should do once a diagnosis has been made. This is its main difference from Kelly’s methods, where assessment is directly related to planning subsequent actions. However, RDS-3 is a reality that every therapist and psychologist should become familiar with. It plays the role of a kind of universal language among many areas of psychology and therapy.

1

^ Russian national language and its varieties

Vernacular- words, expressions, grammatical forms and constructions common in non-literary colloquial speech, characteristic of poorly educated native speakers and clearly deviating from existing literary language norms. The bearer of colloquial speech is the uneducated and semi-educated urban population; sometimes, words from colloquial speech are used by high-ranking officials in order to find a common language with the target audience. The term “vernacular” was introduced by Dmitry Ushakov in the meaning of “the speech of the uneducated and semi-educated urban population who do not know literary norms.” Jargon- sociolect; differs from the general spoken language in specific vocabulary and phraseology, expressiveness of turns and special use of word-formation means, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system. It develops in an environment of more or less closed groups: schoolchildren, students, military personnel, and various professional groups. These languages ​​should not be confused with professional languages, which are characterized by a highly developed and fairly accurate terminology of a particular craft, branch of technology, as well as “thieves’ jargons,” the language of the declassed, criminal elements of society. Dialect(Greek - “adverb” from Greek - “to speak, to express”) is a type of language that is used as a means of communication between people whom the majority of the public does not understand. A dialect is a complete system of speech communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar.

^ The concept of language norm. Variants of norms and difficulties associated with them. Types of norms

A historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a particular historical period. A norm is one of the essential properties of a language that ensures its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variability of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is designed, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other, to satisfy current and the changing needs of society. Kinds:

• 
  lexical- ensure the correct choice of words;
• 
  accentological- provide for the correct placement of stress;
• 
  orthoepic- describe the correct pronunciation of words;
• 
  spelling- consolidate the uniformity of speech transmission in writing;
• 
  morphological- rules of inflection and word formation described in grammars;
• 
  syntactic- regulate the correct construction of grammatical structures.

3

^ The concept of speech culture. The role of speech culture in communication

a concept widespread in Soviet and Russian linguistics of the 20th century that combines mastery of the linguistic norms of oral and written language, as well as “the ability to use expressive language means in different communication conditions.” The same phrase denotes a linguistic discipline that deals with defining the boundaries of cultural (in the above sense) speech behavior, developing normative aids, and promoting language norms and expressive language means. The culture of speech, in addition to normative stylistics, includes the regulation of “those speech phenomena and spheres that are not yet included in the canon of literary speech and the system of literary norms” - that is, all everyday written and oral communication, including such forms as vernacular, various kinds of jargon and so on. Role.“Man is realized in dialogue” Frankl. In relationships between people, the culture of speech and its style, the so-called “slang,” play an important role. This can best be observed in the communication of people from different walks of life, different age categories, the environment in which they find themselves, as well as the totality of these differences. So, for example, a person who grew up in a small village, who spent his whole life communicating with his own kind in this limited world - let’s call it “world A”, regardless of it, develops a unique culture, or more often its complete absence, if we talk about generally accepted moral norms, speech and behavior during communication. So two or more individuals from world A, communicating, do not experience the slightest difficulty, since language, speech style, way of constructing sentences, interests, mental abilities, upbringing, moral principles and their development are approximately at the same level. Accordingly, neither party experiences any inconvenience and the communication process proceeds normally: everyone receives from each other what they started communicating for. Both parties remain satisfied, and subsequently make contact with each other just as easily.

^ Functional styles of the modern Russian language: areas of use and characteristics.

Functional styles- these are varieties of language, determined by the spheres of human activity and having their own norms for the selection and combination of linguistic units. Scientific style Scientific style - the style of scientific communications. The scope of use of this style is science; the recipients of text messages can be scientists, future specialists, students, or simply anyone interested in a particular scientific field; The authors of texts of this style are scientists, experts in their field. The purpose of style can be described as describing laws, identifying patterns, describing discoveries, teaching, etc. Formal business style Business style is used for communication and information in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style is used for drawing up documents: laws, orders, regulations, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates. The scope of application of the official business style is law, the author is a lawyer, lawyer, diplomat, or just a citizen. Journalistic style The journalistic style serves to influence people through the media. It is found in the genres of articles, essays, reports, feuilletons, interviews, oratory and is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, and emotionality. This style is used in the spheres of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is intended not only for a narrow circle of specialists, but for broad sections of society, and the impact is directed not only on the mind, but also on the feelings of the addressee. Conversational style The conversational style is used for direct communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary. It is distinguished by its large semantic capacity and colorfulness, giving liveliness and expressiveness to speech. The usual form of implementation of the conversational style is dialogue; this style is more often used in oral speech. There is no preliminary selection of language material. In this style of speech, extra-linguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures, and the environment. Art style The artistic style is used in fiction. It influences the reader’s imagination and feelings, conveys the author’s thoughts and feelings, uses all the richness of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, and is characterized by imagery and emotionality of speech. The emotionality of an artistic style differs from the emotionality of colloquial and journalistic styles.

^ Lexical norms. The main errors that occur when lexical norms are violated.

Lexical norms regulate the use of words in speech. Lexical norms include:

• 
  norms of word usage;
• 
  norms of lexical compatibility
• 
  norms of functional-style affiliation of a word (stylistic coloring).

Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. ^ Polysemy (polysemy) is the ability of a word to be used in several meanings. Homonyms- words that sound and spell the same, but have different meanings. Paronyms words that are close, but not identical in sound, are called words of the same root with stress on the same syllable, attributed to the same grammatical category, to the same part of speech, to the same number, gender (or aspect, if these are verbs and their forms) and denoting different concepts .

^ Morphological norms. The main errors that occur when morphological norms are violated

Morphological norms are the norms for the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). In morphology (as well as in syntax and pronunciation) there are strong and weak norms. Strong ones are observed by everyone who speaks Russian as a native language. Weak ones are easily influenced by outsiders, are poorly absorbed and are often distorted. A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a form that does not exist or does not correspond to the context. For example: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post.

^ Syntactic norms. The main errors that occur when morphological norms are violated

Syntactic norms are the norms for the correct construction of phrases and sentences. Compliance with syntactic norms is the most important condition for correct speech. Syntactic norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, correlating parts of a sentence with each other using grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms leads to syntactic errors of various types. For example, there is a violation of syntactic norms in the following sentences:

• 
  Reading the book, the question arises about the future of the country.
• 
  The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles.
• 
  Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.

8

Orthoepic norms. The main errors that occur when spelling norms are violated

Orthoepy (from the Greek orthos “correct” and epos “speech”) - correct pronunciation. The word “orthoepy” is used in two meanings:

• 
  a system of uniform pronunciation standards in the literary language;
• 
  a science (section of phonetics) that deals with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment.

The orthoepic norm is the only possible or preferred option for the correct, exemplary pronunciation of a word. The basis of the Russian literary language, and therefore literary pronunciation, is the Moscow dialect. The greatest difficulties for Russian speakers are related to

• 
  with emphasis,
• 
  with pronunciation e or e after consonants in borrowed words,
• 
  with pronunciation e or е after stressed consonants,
• 
  with pronunciation ch or sh in combinations cht and chn,
• 
  with the pronunciation of individual words (use of extra vowels and consonants or, conversely, illegal omission of a vowel or consonant sound in a word),
• 
  with the pronunciation of the sounds [zh] and [zh"] in place of the combinations zhzh, zhd, zzh.

9

^ Language and communications: types of communication, rules of communication. How to make communication effective

Kinds: Frontal communication- a type of communication in which transactions go in one direction from the speaker to many listeners, according to the principle “one speaks - the rest are silent.” If, for example, during a lecture, a student asks the lecturer a question, then a dialogue may arise between the student and the lecturer, but the type of communication remains frontal, since while one of them speaks, the principle “one speaks - the rest are silent” is preserved . Dialogue- a type of communication in which transactions occur in both directions between two interlocutors. Indirect communication- a type of communication in which transactions occur in both directions through information recorded in some form, for example, through text, sound or video recording, drawing or diagram.

^ Speech etiquette and its functions. Etiquette in formal and informal communication situations. Features of Russian speech etiquette

The etiquette formulas themselves do not contain direct messages, but do contain indirect ones. The word “hello” in everyday communication means: “I want to maintain a relationship with you,” and the absence of this etiquette sign is read as an unwillingness to maintain a relationship. That is why the norm is to greet employees, clients, partners, and visitors not only at the beginning of a conversation, but also in the absence of the intention to enter into verbal contact. If you enter the office of a colleague or boss where strangers are sitting, it is customary to greet everyone present. Feature The Russian language is the presence in it of two pronouns - “you” and “you”, which can be perceived as forms of the second singular. The choice of one form or another depends on the social status of the interlocutors, the nature of their relationship, and the official/informal environment. It is not customary to address strangers with “you”; in an official setting; with those older in age, rank and sometimes position. At the same time, you should not use “you” to address friends and relatives, classmates or work colleagues. In the official situation (boss - subordinate, employee - client, teacher - student, etc.), the strictest rules of speech etiquette apply. This area of ​​communication is most clearly regulated by etiquette. Therefore, violations of speech etiquette are most noticeable in it, and it is in this area that violations can have the most serious consequences for the subjects of communication. In unofficial situations (acquaintances, friends, relatives, etc.), the norms of speech etiquette are the most free. Often verbal communication in this situation is not regulated at all. Close people, friends, relatives, lovers, in the absence of strangers, can tell each other everything and in any tone. Their verbal communication is determined by moral norms that fall within the scope of ethics, but not by etiquette norms. But if an outsider is present in an informal situation, then the current rules of speech etiquette immediately apply to the entire situation.

^ Official business style and its features

Official business style is a functional style of speech, the environment of verbal communication in the field of official relations: in the field of legal relations and management. This area covers international relations, law, economics, the military industry, advertising, communication in official institutions, and government activities. Peculiarities: Official business style is the style of documents: international treaties, government acts, legal laws, regulations, charters, instructions, official correspondence, business papers, etc.

1. 
   conciseness, compact presentation, economical use of language;
2. 
   standard arrangement of material, frequent obligatory form (identity card, various kinds of diplomas, birth and marriage certificates, monetary documents, etc.), the use of clichés inherent in this style;
3. 
   widespread use of terminology, names (legal, diplomatic, military, administrative, etc.), the presence of a special stock of vocabulary and phraseology (official, clerical), inclusion of complex abbreviations and abbreviations in the text;
4. 
   frequent use of verbal nouns, denominate prepositions (based on, in relation to, in accordance with, in fact, by virtue of, for the purposes of, at the expense of, along the line, etc.), complex conjunctions;
5. 
   the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with enumeration;
6. 
   direct word order in a sentence as the predominant principle of its construction;
7. 
   the tendency to use complex sentences reflecting the logical subordination of some facts to others;
8. 
   almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;
9. 
   weak individualization of style.

12

Rules of oral business communication. Phone conversation

1. 
   Be punctual in everything
2. 
   Don't say too much
3. 
   Think not only about yourself, but also about others
4. 
   Dress appropriately
5. 
   Speak and write in good language

You should begin a telephone conversation with a greeting and a subsequent request to invite the person with whom you want to speak to the telephone. Next, you need to clearly identify yourself.

^ Preparing and conducting presentations, self-presentations (interviews)

When preparing your speech, remember that this is the most important stage. You should ensure that you have all the necessary information and materials. So, you will need:

1. 
   All information on the topic of the presentation
2. 
   Information about the place and time of the presentation
3. 
   Well-designed visual aids
4. 
   Abstract cards
5. 
   Necessary vocabulary and terminology on the presentation topic
6. 
   An assistant in front of whom you will rehearse your speech

In the most general form, preparation for a meeting includes the following actions: deciding on its holding, determining the topic, forming an agenda, determining the objectives of the meeting and its total duration, start date and time, composition of participants, approximate work schedule, preparing the leader, preparing a report and the draft decision, preliminary preparation of participants and premises, and, if necessary, accommodation, meals, travel of participants to the meeting place. After the decision to hold a meeting is made, the composition of the participants is outlined. A sufficient number is invited, but only those who are really necessary, in the absence of which the meeting would be ineffective. However, the degree of business interest is not the only criterion when selecting meeting participants. Sometimes it is necessary to take into account the sufficiency of their official rights.

^ Preparing and conducting business conversations and meetings

A business conversation is a meaningful desire of one person or group of people, through a word, to evoke a desire in another person or group of people to take action that will change at least one of the parties to a situation or establish new relationships between the participants in the conversation. Preparation

1. 
   Planning
   • 
     preliminary analysis of participants and situation;
   • 
     initiative to conduct a conversation and determine its objectives;
   • 
     defining strategy and tactics;
   • 
     a detailed plan for preparing for the conversation.
2. 
   Operational preparation:
   • 
     collection of materials;
   • 
     selection and systematization of materials;
   • 
     thinking and arranging materials;
   • 
     work plan;
   • 
     developing the main part of the conversation;
   • 
     the beginning and end of a conversation.
3. 
   Editing:
   • 
     control (i.e. checking the work done);
   • 
     giving final form to the conversation.

15

Written official business speech and its linguistic features

It would be wrong and unfair to call the official business style clerical. This is a whole variety of Russian literary language. And this is an appropriate style, which has its own means of expression, ways of naming objects and phenomena, and is even expressive in its own way. By observing the norms of official business speech, we pay tribute not to cliches and bureaucracy, but to the objectively established tradition of constructing speech in accordance with the expressed content, setting and purpose of the statement. Two features of formal business style:

1. 
   The content expressed in an official business style, given its enormous importance, must exclude any ambiguity, any discrepancies.
2. 
   Official business style is characterized by a certain, more or less limited range of topics.

These features contributed to the consolidation of traditional, established means of linguistic expression and the development of certain forms and techniques for constructing speech.

^ Types of documents. Language and style of documents for official use. Samples of documents for personal use

1. 
   By purpose - organizational documents (Charter, Job description, Regulations, Staffing table, Structure and staffing); administrative documents (Order, Extract from the order, Order, Instruction, Resolution, Decision), information and reference documents (Act, Protocol, Report, Explanatory Note, Service Note, Letter, Certificate);
2. 
   By time of creation - primary and secondary (abstract, abstract, review, etc.);
3. 
   By production method - rough, white, electronic, graphic, handwritten document, typewritten, printed (brochure, book, magazine);
4. 
   By type of content - text, iconic (graphic), idiographic (diagrams, maps, notes), auditory, multimedia;
5. 
   According to the method of presentation - electronic, on paper;
6. 
   By place of publication - internal, external;
7. 
   By sending direction - incoming, outgoing;
8. 
   By distribution - published, unpublished, unpublished, intermediate;
9. 
   According to the need for technical means - human-readable, machine-readable;
10. 
    According to the level of secrecy - not secret, secret, with different levels of secrecy.

The structure and content of the memo is similar to the structure and presentation of a business letter. The text is usually divided into three parts. The first contains the reasons for preparing the memo, references to facts and events, decisions, and other arguments that served as the basis for drawing up the memo. The second part presents requests, outlines conclusions, and proposes solutions. In the third part, the expected result can be formulated, the rejection of a proposal, request, etc. can be stated.

^ Scientific style and its substyles: characteristics and areas of use

a functional style of speech, a literary language, which is characterized by a number of features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue character, strict selection of linguistic means, inclination towards standardized speech. The style of scientific works is ultimately determined by their content and the goals of scientific communication: to explain facts as accurately and completely as possible, to show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, to identify patterns of historical development, and so on. Substyles:
Scientific. The addressee of this style is a scientist, a specialist. The purpose of style can be called the identification and description of new facts, patterns, discoveries. Typical for dissertations, monographs, abstracts, scientific articles, scientific reports, theses, scientific reviews, etc.
Scientific and educational. Works in this style are addressed to future specialists and students, with the goal of teaching and describing the facts necessary to master the material, therefore the facts presented in the text and examples are given as typical ones. A description “from general to specific”, strict classification, active introduction and use of special terms are mandatory. Typical for textbooks, teaching aids, lectures, etc. Popular science. The audience with this style usually does not have special knowledge in this area. Yu. A. Sorokin points out that a popular science text is written “scientifically, popularly, artistically,” that is, while maintaining the rigor and clarity of presentation characteristic of a scientific text, its feature is the simplified nature of the presentation and the possible use of emotionally expressive means of speech.

^ Linguistic features of scientific text. Terminology as a system

1. 
   Generality. Abstractness, abstractness of presentation. Almost every word acts as a designation of a general concept or abstract object. The abstract-generalized nature of speech is manifested in the selection of lexical material (nouns predominate over verbs, general scientific terms and words are used, verbs are used in certain tense and finite forms) and special syntactic constructions (indefinite-personal sentences, passive constructions)
2. 
   Logical presentation. There is an orderly system of connections between the parts of the statement; the presentation is consistent and consistent. This is achieved by using special syntactic structures and typical means of interphrase communication.
3. 
   Precision of presentation. Achieved by using unambiguous expressions, terms, words with clear lexical and semantic compatibility
4. 
   Evidentiary presentation. Reasoning substantiates scientific hypotheses and propositions
5. 
   Objectivity of presentation. Manifests itself in the presentation, analysis of different points of view on the problem, in the focus on the subject of the statement and the absence of subjectivity in conveying the content, in the impersonality of linguistic expression
6. 
   Saturation with factual information, which is necessary for evidence and objectivity of presentation. The most important task of the scientific style of speech is to explain the causes of phenomena, communicate essential features, describe the properties of the subject of scientific research, identify patterns, and teach.

The scientific style includes three types of linguistic units:

1. 
   Lexical units that have a functional-style coloring of a given (i.e. scientific) style. These are special lexical units, syntactic structures, morphological forms
2. 
   Interstyle units, i.e. linguistic units are stylistically neutral, used equally in all styles
3. 
   Stylistically neutral linguistic units, predominantly functioning in a given style. Thus, their quantitative predominance in a given style becomes stylistically significant.

A term (from Latin terminus - limit, boundary) is a word or phrase that accurately and unambiguously names a concept and its relationship with other concepts within a special sphere. Terms exist within the framework of a certain terminology, that is, they are included in a specific lexical system of a language, but only through a specific terminological system. Unlike common language words, terms are not related to context. Within a given system of concepts, a term should ideally be unambiguous, systematic, stylistically neutral (for example, “phoneme”, “sine”, “surplus value”). Terms and non-terms (words of the common language) can transform into each other. Terms are subject to word-formation, grammatical and phonetic rules of a given language, they are created by terminology of words of the national language, borrowing or tracing foreign language terminological elements. In modern science, there is a desire for semantic unification of systems of terms of the same science in different languages ​​(unambiguous correspondence between terms of different languages) and for the use of internationalisms in terminology.

^ Logical structure, construction of a scientific text. Ways and methods of creating scientific text

Composition is the structure, relationship and relative position of the parts of a work. Compositionally, any scientific work, regardless of the field of science and genre, contains two interconnected parts - descriptive (overview) and main. The descriptive (overview) part reflects the progress of scientific research, while the introduction provides justification for the relevance of scientific research, formulates the subject and chosen method of research, sets out the history of the issue (if necessary) and the expected result. The main part of the scientific work highlights the research methodology and technology and the achieved result. All materials that are not vital for understanding the problem are included in the appendix. Scheme for constructing the introductory part of a scientific work (abstract, dissertation, problem article, etc.):

1. 
   justification of the relevance of scientific research (relevance of the problem);
2. 
   characteristics of the theoretical and practical works available on this topic; history of the research question;
3. 
   highlighting a specific issue (subject of research);
4. 
   putting forward a hypothesis;
5. 
   justification for the use of the chosen theory (method);
6. 
   preliminary formulation of conclusions.

Scheme for constructing the final part of a scientific work:

1. 
   a summary of the scientific study;
2. 
   final formulation of conclusions;
3. 
   list of author's works.

(The scientific text has:
topic, i.e. object of consideration, the content of which is revealed in a certain aspect; in addition, a subtopic, i.e. a topic that is included in a broader topic, forming part of it and distinguished by a narrower aspect of consideration or consideration of one of the parts of a given text. There is also a microtheme, which is equal to a paragraph in the text and provides semantic connections between parts of the text.)
The main ways of constructing a scientific text are description, reasoning, and narration. A scientific text is a type of text with a rigid structure. Description- this is a verbal depiction of a phenomenon of reality by listing its characteristics.
Narration- a story about events, phenomena, conveyed in a certain sequence. In this case, the order of words in the sentence is observed: subject - predicate.
Reasoning- verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of any thought.

^ Primary and secondary scientific texts. Abstracts, abstract: design, structure, language structures

Primary- these are primary sources, originals. These include: scientific article, monograph. A scientific article is an essay in which the author sets out scientific research. Secondary- are created on the basis of primary texts belonging to another author. In a scientific text, the following parts are distinguished: title, introductory part (the purpose of the work is formulated and the choice of research topic is justified, research methods are described). The main part is divided into chapters in accordance with the objectives of the work.

^ Abstract, synopsis, review: design, structure, language structures

Essay- a brief summary of a scientific work or several scientific works.
structure:

1. 
   Introductory part - bibliographic description.
2. 
   The actual text, consisting of an introduction, main part and conclusion.
3. 
   Conclusions, reference material.

Decor
The abstract must have a title page, table of contents, introduction, main part, conclusion, bibliography. Abstract- written recording of the main provisions, perceived by ear or written text. When taking notes, you need to write down all the output data of the source (year, place of publication, author, title). Select fields on the page, preferably on the right and left. On the left, the original pages and structural sections are marked, and the main problems are formulated. On the right are your own conclusions and links to other sources. A brief summary of the content of the text is written in the central part of the page. (quotes, facts, calculations). Review- written analysis of the text, which involves commenting on the main provisions of the work (i.e., interpretation of the author’s thoughts, expression of one’s attitude to the problem, argumentation and evaluation, conclusions about the value of the work) Structure: introduction, indicating problems and tasks, characteristics, summary (the article is devoted to the topic, problems, the article discusses, the author describes the methods), evaluative honor - advantages and disadvantages (the advantages of the work include, it is necessary to note the creative nature of the research, conclusions) Plan

1. 
   Subject of analysis (in the work under review)
2. 
   Relevance of the topic (the work is devoted to a current topic)
3. 
   Formulation of the main thesis (the article brings the question to the fore)
4. 
   Brief summary of the work
5. 
   Overall assessment (thus the work undoubtedly reveals opportunities)
6. 
   Advantages, disadvantages (however, the thesis that the noted shortcomings do not reduce the high level of work raises doubts)

22

^ Rhetoric. Types and types of oratory. Argument in rhetoric

Rhetoric- is the science of methods of persuasion, various forms of predominantly linguistic influence on the audience. Genera and species table.

Dispute- public discussion of problems of interest to the participants in the discussion, caused by the desire to thoroughly and deeply understand the issues under discussion. Synonyms - dispute, polemic, discussion, debate, debate. Dispute- collective discussion of moral, political, etc. problems.
Discussion- public discussion of any problems or controversial issues at a meeting. The main feature is the absence of a thesis and the presence of a topic of discussion.
Controversy- The struggle of fundamentally opposing opinions in order to reject someone else’s opinion and defend one’s point of view.

^ Preparation, creation, delivery of a public speech. Speaker and audience

Preparing a speech begins with determining its topic. The topic should not be abstract, but clear and understandable to listeners, precise and concise. The topic can be chosen by the author himself or it can be determined by chance or situation. The topic is covered if all selected aspects are covered, a sufficient number of necessary facts are given, when the conclusion logically follows from the content of the lecture and everything is clear to the audience. Then the purpose of the speech is determined, because in one case, the goal is to inform the listener, in the other, to make the listener worry, in the third, to accept the author’s position. The next stage is the selection of material for a specific performance. The speaker must study official documents, reference and popular science literature, and summarize observations and reflections.

Page 1

A language construct that allows you to select among various sequences of actions using links and labels.  

The main language construct used to describe the actions performed is the operator.  

Let's consider individual language constructs that do not meet the reliability requirements for the software being developed. In most cases, the analysis will use constructs of the PL/1 language as the most commonly used for writing programs.  

It is well known that any language construction, regardless of the context of application, must comply with the same syntax and semantics. Unfortunately, this simple requirement is not always implemented in programming languages. For example, the default device under normal conditions gives the programmer some (perhaps controversial) advantages. However, if the programmer considers it necessary to declare some of the previously silent features, then this can entail a fairly wide range of errors.  

The commentary is not analyzed when deciphering language constructs; it improves the understanding of the corresponding constructs and is used only when preparing documentation.  

COMMENT [ comment ] A language construct that allows programs to include some texts without affecting the execution of the program. Texts serve to explain the program and provide ease of analysis.  

This means that similar language constructs should produce similar results, so that moving from one system to another does not require complete relearning. This is called standardization of the base language.  

Each QBE query has a corresponding SQL (Structured Query Language) query language construct, a structured query language.  

If not, what other language construction should be used here.  

To name various algorithmic objects, language constructs called identifiers are used.  

In the CLU language, a cluster is a language construct for describing an abstract data type. The cluster defines the presentation of data and operations on it. This ensures program independence from data presentation. This ensures data protection and increases the modifiability and reliability of programs.  

A method for organizing the development of programs based on graphical language constructs, allowing the construction of structured programs.  

Using informally described high-level language constructs (both control structures and data structuring tools) as a kind of specification language, the authors show in great detail how these constructs can be implemented in Fortran.  

The first section defines the content and rule for presenting language constructs in a normalized form. To record the names of information security structural units in this form, the alphabet and vocabulary of the natural language in which the enterprise is managed are used. A name record in a normalized form contains all the necessary characteristics and is formed in accordance with established rules that ensure the transition to a formalized type of CE name record.  

When you start learning English, at first your eyes run wide from the countless rules, exceptions and constructions that you need to know, understand, and even use correctly. Only after some time do you realize that this language is not as terrible as it seemed at the very beginning, and you begin to distinguish stable expressions, phrasal verbs, etc. in the text.

It is for those who are just starting to learn English, who still have a mess in their heads and who want to isolate the so-called must have or in our case must know from all this grammatical chaos, that I wrote this article. Today I’ll tell you about the basic constructions and speech patterns that are important to know and that will help you express your thoughts.

1. There is/there are

The main purpose of this construction is to tell the interlocutor that something is located somewhere, is present. We use there is/there are when we talk about what attractions there are in our city, when we describe our room or house, when we tell what is in our bag or backpack.

Please note that sentences with this construction are translated from the end, and there is/there are doesn't translate at all. There is we use with singular number, and there are, respectively, with plural.

For example:

2. To be going to

Design to be going to translated as “to gather.” We use it when we say that we will definitely do something in the future. It is important to remember that this construction works in cases where the decision was made before the conversation, that is, you decided to learn Italian and after making the decision you talk to a friend and share your plan with him:

I am going to learn Italian.

Now let's look at how to implement it into a proposal. Verb to be as always changes to am/is/are/was/were/will be depending on pronoun and tense; going to remains unchanged and is translated as “getting ready,” and then there is always a verb that tells you what exactly you are going to do.

They are going to get married this winter. - They are going to get married this winter.
We are going to earn a lot of money next summer. - We're going to make a lot of money next summer.
I am going to leave for London tomorrow. - I'm going to leave for London tomorrow.

3. The way

This figure of speech is, in my opinion, the most interesting because it can be applied to many situations. The word itself way translated as “road” and “direction”. Very often, beginners in English cannot understand how the road relates, for example, to the description of a person. We will talk about such situations now.

Turnover the way can convey an image of action. For example, you can say that you like the way she dances or the way she looks. In this case, “how” is our turn the way:

I like the way you dance. - I like the way you dance.
He likes the way I cook. - He likes the way I cook.

Also turnover the way can be translated as "way". For example:

Working hard is the only way to get your goal. - Working hard is the only way to achieve your goal.

I would like to point out that this is not the only meaning and possibility of use. the way. With this phrase there are both stable expressions and verbal constructions, but for the first time the meaning discussed above will be quite sufficient.

4. It takes

This design is also quite common and will definitely be useful to you when traveling abroad. This phrase is used when we say how long something takes. We can use it to ask how long it will take to fly to our destination, or how long it will take to take a taxi to the city center.

It takes me an hour to get to work. - The journey to work takes me one hour.
The flight to Moscow takes 3 hours. - The flight to Moscow takes three hours.
My morning exercises take me 15 min. - My morning exercises take me 15 minutes.

Let's summarize and repeat once again what situations each of these designs is suitable for:

• there is/there are we use it when we tell what objects are in the room, house, bag, city, and so on;
• to be going to we use it when we are going to do something;
• the way suitable for describing a course of action;
• it takes we use when we report how long something takes.

And finally, I would like to give a little advice for those who are just starting to learn English: do not try to understand all the rules at once. Accumulate knowledge step by step, learn simple words, rules and tenses first, and then move on to more complex ones. And, of course, be patient with yourself and with English.

Language structures of business letters: letter of request

A letter of request is perhaps the most common form of business correspondence. The number of situations that necessitate making a request on behalf of a legal or natural person cannot be counted. This is obtaining information, product samples, coordinating actions, inducing some action, etc.

The composition and structure of a request letter is not much different from the standard ones. As a rule, the text of a request letter consists of two parts:

1. Introductory part, where the essence of the matter is stated in a narrative form, the motives and reasons for making the request are explained. The following standard expressions are often used here:

the reason for petition

Due to non-receipt... ;

Considering the social significance... ;

Taking into account (our long-term cooperation)... ;

Considering (the long-term and fruitful nature of our business ties)... ;

Due to the discrepancy between your actions and previously accepted agreements... ;

Due to the delay in receiving the cargo... ;

Based on the results of negotiations on the issue of... etc.

Goal of request

In order to carry out the order... ;

In order to resolve the issue as quickly as possible...;

To coordinate issues... ;

In order to ensure the safety of cargo passage... ;

To avoid conflict situations... etc.

In accordance with the previously reached agreement...;

In connection with the appeal to us...;

Based on an oral agreement... ;

Based on our telephone conversation... ;

According to government decree... ;

According to the protocol on mutual supplies... etc.

All of the above expressions must be used taking into account the context and speech situation.

Almost all standard expressions begin with a derived preposition or prepositional phrase. You should pay attention to the correct use of these prepositions with nouns, which are mainly in the genitive and dative cases.

2. Actually a request. Here the key phrase of the letter includes words formed from the verb to ask. Its use is explained by etiquette requirements for business texts and the psychological laws of business communication - a person more willingly agrees to perform an action expressed in the form of a request rather than in the form of a demand.

In some cases, the request itself, expressed descriptively, may not contain this verb, for example: We hope that you will find it possible to consider our proposal within the specified period.

The request can be made in the first person singular (“I ask...”), in the first person plural (“We ask...”), in the third person singular (in this case, nouns with a collective meaning are used: “The management is asking. ..”, “The administration asks...”, “The Labor Collective Council asks...”, etc.), from the third person plural, if several nouns with a collective meaning are used (The Administration and the Labor Collective Council ask.. .).

If the request letter is multidimensional, then the composition of the second part of such a letter may look like this (parts of the composition must correspond to the paragraph division of the text):

Please... (Please...)

At the same time I ask... (We also ask...)

And I also ask... (And we also ask...)

When drafting a letter of request, you should consider the following recommendations:

1. When making a request, emphasize your or your organization's interest in fulfilling it.

2. Under no circumstances begin a letter with the word “Please...” - it is more tactful to first explain the reasons for your request (even if all the details have already been agreed upon with the addressee).

3. Don’t rush to thank the recipient in advance. By doing this you put both yourself and the recipient in an awkward position. Try to say thank you when you find out that your request has been granted.

When formulating a request, the following standard expressions are often used:

We are turning to you with a request...

About shipping to our address...

About the direction to my address...

About sending to our organization...

About providing me...;

We ask (ask) you (you)...

Notify (us)...

Send (to me)...

Urgently present...

Report immediately...

Notify (company management) about...

Inform me about...;

I ask for your (your) consent to...

Sending to...

Providing us...

Familiarization with...

Transfer... of the following equipment... ;

We ask for your (your) assistance in...

Receiving...

Speedy dispatch...

Providing additional information regarding...

Conducting... ;

I ask for your (your) instructions...

To conclude an agreement on...

For delivery from the enterprise warehouse... to a representative...

To prepare documents for...

For review... ;

We ask you not to refuse the courtesy and... .

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://www.gramma.ru/ were used