Dangerous situations of natural man-made nature. Natural and man-made emergencies

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Emergency Situation (ES) -this is the situation in a certain territory or water area resulting from an accident, hazardous natural phenomenon, catastrophe, natural or other disaster that may or did entail human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of the living conditions of people ...

Many complex physical, physicochemical, biochemical, geodynamic, heliophysical, hydrodynamic and other processes, accompanied by the exchange and mutual transformation of various types of energy, take place on the surface of the Earth and in the layers of the atmosphere adjacent to it. These processes underlie the evolution of the Earth, being the source of constant transformations in the appearance of our planet. A person is not able to suspend or change the course of these processes, he can only predict their development and, in some cases, influence their dynamics.

Russia, which has an extremely wide variety of geological, climatic and landscape conditions, is exposed to more than 30 types of natural hazards. The most destructive of them are floods, flooding, erosion, earthquakes, landslides, mudflows, karsts, suffosions, rock bumps, avalanches, hurricanes, storm winds, tornadoes, severe frosts, and various permafrost phenomena. The greatest danger is posed by earthquakes. In recent years alone, more than 120 earthquakes have occurred on the territory of the Russian Federation. Two of them - on the Kuriles on October 4, 1994 and in the village. Neftegorsk on May 27, 1995 were very strong and led to human casualties, severe destruction of social and industrial infrastructure in the epicentral regions, as well as ruptures, cracks, landslides and other deformations of the earth's surface.

Other hazards of geological origin include landslides, avalanches, mudflows, abrasion, processing of reservoir banks, and permafrost processes. The possibility of landslides and mudflows affecting the territories of certain regions of the North Caucasus, the Volga region, Transbaikalia and Sakhalin reaches 70-80% of their total area. More than 700 cities in the country are affected by these processes. The total annual damage from them is tens of billions of rubles. The processes of plane and ravine erosion, processing of the shores of reservoirs and seas, and swelling of soils are relatively less dangerous because of the smaller volumes and speeds of the simultaneous movement of masses of rocks and water. They do not lead to the death of people, but the economic losses from their development can be comparable (as a rule, due to the irreversible loss of land) with natural disasters. In some years, the damage from these processes can amount to $ 8-9 billion.

Of the atmospheric processes, the most devastating and dangerous are squalls, hurricanes, typhoons, hail, tornadoes, heavy downpours, thunderstorms, blizzards and snowfalls, which often affect some areas of the Far East (Magadan Region and Sakhalin), and in the European part of Russia - Bryansk, Kaluga, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov regions and the Republic of Mordovia.

Of all natural processes and phenomena, the greatest economic damage is caused by floods, tropical storms, droughts and earthquakes, they are also the most dangerous for human life and health.

The analysis of the development of natural hazards today allows us to conclude that, despite the scientific and technological progress, the protection of people and the material sphere from the terrible phenomena and processes of nature does not increase. The annual increase in the number of deaths from natural disasters in the world is 4.3%, the number of victims - 8.6%, and the amount of material damage - 10.4%.

Technogenic hazards and threats humanity felt and realized a little later than natural ones. Only after reaching a certain stage in the development of the technosphere, man-made disasters intruded into human life, the sources of which are accidents and man-made disasters. The danger of the technosphere for the population and the environment is due to the presence in industry, energy and utilities of a large number of radiation, chemical, biological, fire and explosive technologies and industries. There are about 45 thousand such industries in Russia alone. The possibility of accidents at them is currently aggravated by a high degree of wear and tear of fixed assets, failure to perform the necessary repair and maintenance work, and a drop in production and technological discipline.

Radiation hazardous facilities

There are 10 nuclear power plants (NPP), 113 research nuclear installations, 12 industrial enterprises of the fuel cycle, 8 research organizations working with nuclear materials, 9 nuclear ships with facilities for their support, as well as about 13 thousand other enterprises and organizations carrying out their activities using radioactive substances and products based on them. Almost all nuclear power plants are located in the densely populated European part of the country. More than 4 million people live in their 30-kilometer zones. In addition, the system for the disposal of nuclear waste generated at these facilities poses a great danger to the population.

Chemically hazardous facilities

In the Russian Federation, there are more than 3.3 thousand economic facilities with significant quantities of chemically hazardous substances (AHOV). More than 50% of them use ammonia, about 35% - chlorine, 5% - hydrochloric acid. Up to several thousand hazardous chemicals can be simultaneously located on separate objects. The total stock of hazardous chemicals at the country's enterprises reaches 700 thousand tons. Many of these enterprises are located in large cities with a population of over 100 thousand people or near them. These are primarily enterprises of the chemical, petrochemical and oil refining industries.

Fire and explosive objects

In our country, there are over 8 thousand fire and explosive objects. Explosions and fires most often occur at enterprises of the chemical, petrochemical and oil refining industries. They lead, as a rule, to the destruction of industrial and residential buildings, the defeat of production personnel and the population, significant material damage.

Gas and oil pipelines

Currently, oil and gas enterprises, geological exploration organizations operate more than 200 thousand km of main oil pipelines, about 350 thousand km of field pipelines, 800 compressor and oil pumping stations. Most of the main gas pipelines, oil pipelines and oil-and-heat product pipelines were put into operation in the 60s and 70s. last century. Therefore, today the share of oil pipelines with a service life of more than 20 years is 73%, of which a significant part has been in operation for more than 30 years. It follows from this that the existing network of oil pipelines has largely exhausted its resource and requires serious reconstruction. The main causes of pipeline accidents are underground corrosion of metal (21%), defects in construction and installation works (21), defects in pipes and equipment (14), mechanical damage (19%).

Transport

More than 3.5 billion tons of cargo are transported in the Russian Federation annually by various modes of transport, including rail - about 50%, road - 39, inland waterways - 8, sea - 3%. Daily transportation of people exceeds 100 million people: by rail - 47%, by road - 37, aviation - 15, river and sea vessels - 1%. The most dangerous is road transport, during the operation of which an average of 33,415 people die. for 1 billion passenger kilometers. For comparison, in aviation this figure is 1.065 people. In railway accidents, human losses are much lower. It should also be noted that transport is a serious source of danger not only for passengers, but also for the population living in the areas of transport highways, since they carry a large amount of flammable, chemical, radioactive, explosive and other substances that pose a threat to life and health in an accident. of people. Such substances make up about 12% of the total volume of cargo transportation.

Hydraulic structures

Currently, more than 30 thousand reservoirs (including 60 large reservoirs with a capacity of more than 1 billion m3) and several hundred storage facilities for industrial wastewater and waste are in operation on the territory of the Russian Federation. Hydraulic structures at 200 reservoirs and 56 waste storage facilities are in an emergency condition (they have been in operation without reconstruction for more than 50 years), which can create many problems. They are located, as a rule, within or upstream of large settlements and all are objects of increased risk. Their destruction can lead to catastrophic flooding of vast territories, many cities, villages and economic facilities, to a long cessation of shipping, agricultural and fishing production.

Utilities facilities

In the housing and communal services of our country, there are about 2370 water supply and 1050 sewage pumping stations, about 138 thousand transformer substations, over 51 thousand boiler houses. The length of water supply networks is approximately 185 thousand km, heat (in two-pipe calculation) - 101 thousand km and sewerage - about 105 thousand km.

About 120 major accidents occur annually at utility facilities, the material damage from which amounts to tens of billions of rubles. In recent years, every second accident took place at networks and heat supply facilities, and every fifth in water supply and sewerage systems.

The main causes of man-made accidents and disasters are as follows:

* the complexity of production is increasing, often this is due to the use of new technologies that require high concentrations of energy, substances hazardous to human life and have a strong effect on the components of the environment;
* the reliability of production equipment and vehicles decreases due to a high degree of wear;
* violation of technological and labor discipline, low level of training of workers in the field of safety.

In addition, sometimes the causes of a number of accidents and man-made disasters are various hazardous natural processes and phenomena.

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"Russian State Vocational Pedagogical University"

Social Institute

Department of Physiology and Life Safety

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in the discipline "Life Safety"

Natural and man-made emergencies. International security of the Russian Federation

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

The creation of rational living conditions guarantees the preservation of the health of workers and creates the prerequisites for maintaining a high level of efficiency and excludes the impact of adverse factors on the organism of workers and / or its offspring.

The analysis of social practical activity, including various forms of human activity, leads to an inductive conclusion about the potential danger of activity.

The potential for danger lies in the latent, implicit nature of the manifestation under certain, often difficult to predict conditions.

The essence of the danger lies in the fact that such an impact on a person is possible, which leads to injuries, illnesses, deterioration of health and other undesirable consequences, especially in emergency situations. Danger is a consequence of the action of certain factors on a person. If the harmful factors affecting a person do not correspond to the normative sanitary and hygienic requirements, the phenomenon of danger appears. The heterogeneity of the systems "man - environment" is the objective basis of danger. Material carriers of hazardous and harmful factors are emergencies: fires, typhoons, tsunamis, earthquakes, road accidents, natural and climatic environment (thunderstorms, floods, solar activity); flora, fauna; people.

The relevance of the introduction of this course is due to the fact that when analyzing the physiology of labor, the characteristics of the psychological state in emergency situations and identifying hazards, it is necessary to perform a detailed composition of the ongoing process, which will make it possible to determine the harmful and dangerous factors that arise in emergency situations.

Working in conditions where harmful factors exceed hygienic standards is a violation of the Laws of the Russian Federation: "Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the protection of public health", "On the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population", "Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on labor protection".

Human activity, without an in-depth analysis of the anatomophysiological impact of hazardous and harmful factors on a person, the environment has caused and does great damage to nature, but the person himself becomes a victim of his activities. Cognition and analysis of the ever-deepening interactions, sometimes extremely negative, of human society with the environment, as well as with socio-industrial and cultural-spiritual factors, provides the necessary database for further forecasting the pace and direction of socio-demographic processes. This contributes to the study of the characteristics of working conditions, their impact on human health and functional state and to develop scientific foundations and practical measures aimed at preventing harmful and dangerous effects of environmental factors and the labor process on workers and ensuring favorable working conditions, and the knowledge of the basic laws and factors development of human society, as a special structure of the biosphere and noosphere, to develop the concept of optimizing the human living environment.

Purpose of work: to get acquainted with the concepts, problems and methodological discipline "Life Safety"

1. To study the concept of "emergency situations" and determine the types and types. Describe the classification of emergency situations.

2. Identify the features of the international security of the Russian Federation.

emergency security international

1. Classification and characteristics of natural and man-made emergencies

Emergency situation - a situation that has developed in a certain area as a result of an industrial accident, or other dangerous situation of a man-made nature, catastrophe, dangerous natural phenomenon, natural or other disaster that has entailed or may entail human casualties, harm to human health or the environment, significant material damage and violation of the living conditions of people;

1. Technogenic

Technogenic emergencies - transport accidents (catastrophes), fires, unprovoked explosions or their threat, accidents with the release (threat of release) of hazardous chemical, radioactive, biological substances, sudden destruction of structures and buildings, accidents at engineering networks and life support structures, hydrodynamic accidents at dams , dams and other engineering structures.

Technogenic emergencies

Transport accidents (disasters):

Freight trains;

Passenger trains;

River and sea cargo ships;

On main pipelines, etc.

Fires, explosions, threat of explosions:

Fires (explosions) in buildings, communications and technological equipment of industrial facilities;

Fires (explosions) in transport;

Fires (explosions) in buildings and structures of residential, social and domestic, cultural significance, etc.

Accidents with release (threat of release) of chemically hazardous substances (CWS):

Accidents with the release (threat of release) of CWA during their production, processing or storage (disposal);

Loss of CWS sources;

Accidents with chemical weapons, etc.

Accidents with release (threat of release) of radioactive substances:

Accidents at nuclear power plants;

Accidents of vehicles and spacecraft with nuclear installations;

Accidents with nuclear weapons in the places of their storage, operation or installation;

Loss of radioactive sources, etc.

Accidents with the release (threat of release) of biologically hazardous substances (BOV):

Accidents with the release (threat of release) of biologically hazardous substances at enterprises and research institutions;

Loss of BOV, etc.

Sudden collapse of buildings, structures:

Collapse of elements of transport communications;

Collapse of industrial buildings and structures;

The collapse of buildings and structures of residential, social and domestic and cultural significance.

Power system accidents:

Accidents at autonomous power plants with a long-term interruption of power supply to all consumers;

Failure of transport electrical contact networks, etc.

Accidents on communal life support systems:

accidents in sewerage systems with massive release of pollutants;

Accidents on heating networks during the cold season;

Accidents in the systems of supplying the population with drinking water;

Accidents on communal gas pipelines.

Accidents at treatment facilities:

Accidents at wastewater treatment plants of industrial enterprises with a massive release of pollutants;

Accidents at industrial gas treatment facilities with massive emission of pollutants.

Hydrodynamic accidents:

Breakthroughs of dams (dams, sluices, etc.) with the formation of breakthrough waves and catastrophic flooding;

Breakthroughs of dams with the formation of a breakthrough flood, etc.

Natural

Natural emergencies - hazardous geological (subsidence of the earth's surface), meteorological (storm, hurricane, tornado, downpour, snowfall), hydrological phenomena (flooding), degradation of soil or subsoil, natural fires (forest, peat), changes in the state of the air basin, infectious morbidity of people, farm animals, massive damage to agricultural plants and forests by diseases or pests, changes in the state of water resources and the biosphere.

Such emergencies are also called natural disasters. These phenomena occur under the influence of atmospheric factors (hurricanes, tornadoes, snowfalls, showers), fire (forest and peat fires), changes in water levels (floods, floods), changes in the earth's crust (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, mudflows, landslides) ... The greatest danger to the population is posed by floods, hurricanes, earthquakes and droughts, which account for about 90% of the damage caused by natural disasters.

Natural emergencies are divided into situations:

1. geophysical nature (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes);

2. geological nature (landslides, mudflows, avalanches, avalanches, sinkholes of the earth's surface as a result of karst, abrasion, erosion, dust storms);

3. meteorological and hydrometeorological nature (storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, tornadoes, squalls, heavy hail, showers, heavy snowfalls, frosts, blizzards, fogs, heavy ice, extreme heat, frost, drought);

4. marine hydrological character (typhoons, tsunamis, strong waves, ice pressure and drift, difficult ice);

5. hydrological nature (floods, floods, floods, congestion, jamming, wind surges, early freeze-up, low water levels);

6. hydrogeological nature (low and high groundwater levels);

7. natural fires (forest, steppe, peat and fossil fires);

8. infectious morbidity of people (single and group cases of dangerous infectious diseases, epidemics, pandemics);

9. infectious morbidity of farm animals (enzootic, epizootic, panzootic);

10. damage to agricultural plants by diseases and pests (epiphytotics, panphytosis, mass distribution of plant pests).

With the aim of a unified approach to assessing emergency situations and choosing a form of response to them, these situations are classified by types, types, extent of distribution, severity of consequences and some other signs. In practice, a general classification of emergencies is usually made on the basis of their causes, sources and the most important indicators of their manifestation.

Such a classification of emergency situations is shown in schemes 1 and 2.

Scheme 1 Classification of natural emergencies

Scheme 2 Classification of technogenic emergencies

In addition, it is important to classify emergencies, reflecting their scale and severity of consequences. This classification takes into account such indicators as the number of people affected, the number of people whose living conditions were violated, the amount of material damage, the boundaries of the zones of action of damaging factors.

In accordance with the Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of the Population and Territories from Natural and Technogenic Emergencies", the Regulation on the classification of natural and man-made emergencies has been developed, according to which, according to the scale of distribution and severity of consequences, emergency situations are divided into local, local, territorial, regional, federal and cross-border.

A local emergency is a situation as a result of which no more than 10 people were injured, or the living conditions of no more than 100 people were violated, or the material damage amounted to no more than 1,000 minimum wages on the day of its occurrence, and its zone does not go beyond the limits of the territory of an industrial or social facility.

A local emergency is a situation as a result of which from 10 to 50 people were injured, or the living conditions of more than 100, but not more than 300 people were violated, or material damage amounted to more than 1 thousand, but not more than 5 thousand of the minimum size wages on the day of its occurrence, and its zone does not go beyond the boundaries of the settlement (city, district).

Territorial emergency - a situation as a result of which 50 to 500 people were injured, or living conditions were violated for more than 300, but not more than 500 people, or material damage amounted to more than 5 thousand, but not more than 500 thousand of the minimum size wages on the day of its occurrence, and its zone does not go beyond the boundaries of the subject of the Russian Federation.

Regional emergency - a situation that resulted in 50 to 500 people affected, or living conditions were disrupted for more than 500, but not more than 1000 people, or material damage amounted to more than 0.5 million, but not more than 5 million of the minimum size wages on the day of occurrence, and its zone covers the territory of two constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

A federal emergency is a situation that resulted in more than 500 people being injured, or more than 1000 people living conditions were violated, or material damage amounted to more than 5 million minimum wages on the day of its occurrence, and its area extends beyond more than two subjects Russian Federation.

A transboundary emergency is a situation, the damaging factors of which go beyond the boundaries of the Russian Federation, or a situation that has occurred abroad and affects the territory of the Russian Federation.

In practice, the classification of emergency situations adopted in Russia makes it possible to assess their causes and scale, to determine the forces and means, financial, time and other resources necessary for their elimination.

Classification of natural and man-made emergencies by scale and consequences

In accordance with the provisions of the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 05/21/2007 No. 304 "On the classification of emergency situations", depending on the scale and consequences of emergencies occurring on the territory of the Russian Federation, are subdivided into emergencies:

Local character.

Municipal character.

Inter-municipal character.

Regional in nature.

Interregional in nature.

Federal character.

The type of emergency, in accordance with the Resolution, is determined based on the analysis of damage indicators, which include:

Emergency coverage area;

The number of people killed or injured;

Amount of material damage, rub.

2. International security of the Russian Federation

In recent years, states have been paying special attention to the problems of ensuring national security, which is closely related to the problems of international security. The Russian Federation is no exception.

In Russia, such documents are devoted to these issues as the Concept of the National Security of the Russian Federation, approved by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of January 10, 2000 No. 24, the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation, approved by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of April 21, 2000, Federation, approved by the President of the Russian Federation on June 28, 2000. These documents formulate the most important directions of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the field of ensuring national security in the context of international security.

The main provisions of these documents can be summarized as follows.

Russia's national interests in the international sphere are in ensuring sovereignty, strengthening Russia's position as a great power - one of the influential centers of the multipolar world, in developing equal and mutually beneficial relations with all countries and integration associations, primarily with the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States and traditional partners Russia, in the widespread observance of human rights and freedoms and the inadmissibility of the use of double standards.

Objectively, the commonality of interests of Russia and the interests of other states on many issues of international security, including countering the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, preventing and settling regional conflicts, combating international terrorism and drug trafficking, solving acute environmental problems of a global nature, including the problems of nuclear and radiation security.

Russia's national interests in the military sphere are to protect its independence, sovereignty, state and territorial integrity, to prevent military aggression against Russia and its allies, and to provide conditions for the peaceful, democratic development of the state.

The main threats to Russia in the international sphere are caused by the following factors:

1) the desire of individual states and interstate associations to downgrade the role of existing mechanisms for ensuring international security, primarily the UN and the OSCE;

2) the danger of weakening the political, economic and military influence of Russia in the world;

3) the strengthening of military-political blocs and alliances, primarily the expansion of NATO to the east;

4) the possibility of the appearance in the immediate vicinity of the Russian borders of foreign military bases and large military contingents;

5) the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their delivery vehicles;

6) weakening of integration processes in the Commonwealth of Independent States;

7) the emergence and escalation of conflicts near the state border of the Russian Federation and the external borders of the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States;

8) claims to the territory of the Russian Federation.

Threats to the national security of the Russian Federation in the international sphere are manifested in attempts by other states to resist the strengthening of Russia as one of the centers of influence in a multipolar world, to hinder the realization of national interests and to weaken its position in Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Asia-Pacific region. ...

Terrorism poses a serious threat to the national security of the Russian Federation. International terrorism has unleashed an open campaign to destabilize the situation in Russia.

The above documents state that the level and scale of threats in the military sphere are increasing. First, NATO's transition, elevated to the rank of a strategic doctrine, to the practice of force (military) actions outside the bloc's area of responsibility and without the sanction of the UN Security Council is fraught with the threat of destabilization of the entire strategic situation in the world. Second, the growing technological gap between a number of leading powers and the buildup of their capabilities to create weapons and military equipment of a new generation create the prerequisites for a qualitatively new stage in the arms race, a radical change in the forms and methods of warfare.

Among the tasks of Russia's foreign policy in ensuring international security are the following:

1) strengthening the key mechanisms of multilateral management of world political and economic processes, primarily under the auspices of the UN Security Council:

2) ensuring favorable conditions for the economic and social development of the country, for maintaining global and regional stability;

3) full participation of Russia in global and regional economic and political structures:

4) assistance in the settlement of conflicts, including peacekeeping activities under the auspices of the UN and other international organizations;

5) achieving progress in the field of nuclear arms control, maintaining strategic stability in the world on the basis of the fulfillment by states of their international obligations in this area;

6) fulfillment of mutual obligations in the field of reducing and eliminating weapons of mass destruction, conventional weapons, implementing measures to build confidence and stability, ensuring international control over the export of goods and technologies, as well as over the provision of military and dual-use services;

7) adaptation of existing agreements on arms control and on disarmament to the new conditions of international relations, as well as the development, if necessary, of new agreements, primarily on measures to build confidence and security;

8) assistance in the creation of zones free of weapons of mass destruction;

9) development of international cooperation in the field of combating transnational crime and terrorism.

Ensuring the military security of the Russian Federation is the most important area of the state's activity. The main goal in this area is to ensure the ability to adequately respond to threats that may arise in the 21st century, with rational costs for national defense.

In the prevention of wars and armed conflicts, the Russian Federation gives preference to political, diplomatic, economic and other non-military means. However, Russia's national interests require military power sufficient for its defense. The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation play a major role in ensuring its military security.

The most important task of the Russian Federation is the implementation of deterrence in the interests of preventing aggression of any scale, including the use of nuclear weapons, against Russia and its allies.

Russia must possess nuclear forces capable of guaranteed infliction of the specified damage to any aggressor state or coalition of states in any situation.

The armed forces of the Russian Federation in peacetime combat strength should be able to provide reliable protection of the country from an air attack and the solution, together with other troops, military formations and bodies of tasks to repel aggression in a local war (armed conflict), as well as strategic deployment to solve problems on a large-scale war. The Armed Forces of Russia must ensure the implementation of its peacekeeping activities.

One of the most important strategic directions in the field of ensuring the military security of the Russian Federation is effective interaction and cooperation with the CIS member states.

The interests of ensuring the national security of the Russian Federation predetermine, under appropriate circumstances, the need for a military presence of Russia in some strategically important regions of the world. The deployment of limited military contingents (military bases, forces of the Navy) on a treaty international legal basis, as well as on the principles of partnership, should ensure Russia's readiness to fulfill its obligations, contribute to the formation of a stable military-strategic balance of forces in the regions and enable the Russian Federation to respond to a crisis situation at its initial stage, to contribute to the implementation of the foreign policy goals of the state.

Russia is considering the possibility of using all the forces and means at its disposal, including nuclear weapons, if it is necessary to repulse an armed aggression, if all other measures to resolve the crisis situation have been exhausted or proved to be ineffective.

The principles of international security provide for:

Approval of peaceful coexistence as a universal principle of interstate relations;

Ensuring equal security for all states;

Creation of effective guarantees in the military, political, economic and humanitarian fields;

Prevention of an arms race in outer space, cessation of all tests of nuclear weapons and their complete elimination;

Unconditional respect for the sovereign rights of every people;

Fair political settlement of international crises and regional conflicts;

Building trust between states;

Development of effective methods to prevent international terrorism;

Eradication of genocide, apartheid, preaching fascism;

Exclusion from international practice of all forms of discrimination, rejection of economic blockades and sanctions (without the recommendations of the world community);

Establishment of a new economic order that ensures equal economic security for all states.

An integral part of international security is the effective functioning of the collective security mechanism enshrined in the UN Charter (Globalistics: Encyclopedia).

The main ways to ensure international security are:

Bilateral treaties on ensuring mutual security between the countries concerned;

Association of states in multilateral unions;

World international organizations, regional structures and institutions for the maintenance of international security;

Demilitarization, democratization and humanization of the international political order, the establishment of the rule of law in international relations.

Depending on the scale of manifestation, the following levels of international security are distinguished:

1) national,

2) regional and

3) global.

Operating Models of International Security

For a more detailed description of the views of international experts, it is necessary to consider those specific models of international security that are proposed by them in the course of the discussions. Modeling is possible based on different approaches and criteria. We will look at two types of models. The first type includes four models, the second type contains three basic models.

Models of international security related to the first type are constructed depending on the number of subjects of the security system. There are four main competing models:

1. Unipolar security system.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States remained the only superpower that, according to supporters of such a model, is trying to bear the "burden" of world leadership in order to prevent a "vacuum of power" in international relations and ensure the spread of democracy throughout the world. It is interesting to note that not only realists, but also neoliberals do not reject the thesis about the justification of American hegemony after the end of the Cold War. For example, a number of Russian experts refer to the opinion of the well-known American political scientist J. Nye, who believes that the lack of leadership from a superpower is bad for other countries as well, because they alone cannot cope with the complex problems of the era of global interdependence.

The unipolar model presupposes the strengthening of the system of military-political alliances led by the United States. Thus, NATO, according to a number of analysts, should ensure stability in the transatlantic subsystem of international relations, harmonize relations between the United States and European states in the strategic field, ensure the American military presence in Europe and guarantee the prevention of conflicts on this continent.

The United States made it clear (and demonstrated this in practice during the 1999 war in the Balkans) that it is NATO that should become the main guarantor of European security.

Other regional organizations - the EU, OSCE, etc. - can only play a secondary role in the European security architecture of the 21st century. In accordance with NATO's new strategic concept, adopted in the spring of 1999, the bloc's area of responsibility is expanding to include adjacent regions. It is curious that, from the point of view of a number of experts, NATO not only fulfills the tasks of a military-political alliance, but is increasingly acquiring identification and civilization functions. NATO membership serves as a kind of indicator of belonging to a Western, “democratic” civilization. Those who are not members of NATO and have no chance of joining this organization belong to “alien” and even hostile civilizations. As one Scandinavian analyst put it, NATO's borders are the boundary between Space and Chaos.

After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime, some Russian experts began to argue that with the victory of the United States in Iraq, a unipolar model of the world was finally established, and Washington would virtually single-handedly rule the world and determine ways to solve the problems facing the world community (only for the entourage, attracting other countries or allowing these countries act independently only in cases where it does not affect American interests). For this reason, the supporters of this view insist, it is time for Russia to abandon its claims to the role of an independent center of power and it is necessary to quickly join the leader, that is, the United States. Otherwise, efforts and resources will be wasted on unnecessary confrontation with Washington.

It should be noted, however, that the unipolar model of international security is subject to justified criticism both in Russia and in the United States itself. Russian critics of the unipolar model cite the opinion of a number of American specialists who believe that the United States simply does not have the necessary resources to fulfill the functions of a world leader. They also draw attention to the fact that American public opinion is also very restrained about this idea, because it realizes that such a role requires significant financial costs.

Conclusion

Having studied the international security of the Russian Federation, as well as having considered natural and man-made emergencies, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Emergency situation - a situation that has developed in a certain territory as a result of an industrial accident or other dangerous situation of a man-made nature, catastrophe, hazardous natural phenomenon, natural or other disaster that has entailed or may entail human casualties, harm to human health or the environment. environment, significant material damage and violation of the living conditions of people;

1.1. Natural emergencies - hazardous geological (subsidence of the earth's surface), meteorological (storm, hurricane, tornado, downpour, snowfall), hydrological phenomena (flooding), degradation of soil or subsoil, natural fires (forest, peat), changes in the state of the air basin, infectious morbidity of people, farm animals, massive damage to agricultural plants and forests by diseases or pests, changes in the state of water resources and the biosphere.

1.2. Technogenic emergencies - transport accidents (catastrophes), fires, unprovoked explosions or their threat, accidents with the release (threat of release) of hazardous chemical, radioactive, biological substances, sudden destruction of structures and buildings, accidents at engineering networks and life support structures, hydrodynamic accidents at dams , dams and other engineering structures.

2. Russia's national interests in the military sphere are to protect its independence, sovereignty, state and territorial integrity, to prevent military aggression against Russia and its allies, and to provide conditions for the peaceful, democratic development of the state.

The national interests of Russia in the border area consist in the creation of political, legal, organizational and other conditions to ensure reliable protection of the state border of the Russian Federation, in compliance with the procedures and rules established by the legislation of the Russian Federation for the implementation of economic and other types of activities in the border area of the Russian Federation.

Thus, the goal and objectives of the work have been solved.

Bibliographic list

1. Safety and protection of a person in emergency situations: Textbook. manual for ped students. universities / Yu.V. Repin. - M .: Bustard, 2005 .-- 191 p.

2. Life safety: Textbook for universities /

L.A. Mikhailov, V.P. Solomin, A.V. Starostenko and others - SPb .: Peter, 2006.-302 p.

3. Safety and protection of a person in emergency situations: Textbook. manual for ped students. universities / Yu.V. Repin. - M .: Bustard, 2005 .-- 191 p.

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What is an emergency?

An emergency situation (ES) is a situation that has developed in a certain area as a result of a man-made accident, natural phenomenon or natural disaster. As a rule, it poses a threat to the life and health of people, destroys material values, damages the natural environment and the national economy.

The media often use the term "extreme situation" (ES), which denotes various incidents: road accidents, fires, emergency situations at work, etc. serious consequences.

In the descriptions of emergency situations, there are the words "accident", "catastrophe", and they are used as synonyms. This is not entirely correct. An accident is an emergency situation related to equipment or mechanisms. For example, production line breakdown, vehicle crash, chemical leakage. The magnitude of these incidents varies greatly. Catastrophe is a broader term, it denotes a tragic accident with significant damage and, as a rule, with mass destruction and loss of life.

Existing classifications of emergency situations

Currently, there are several classifications of emergencies. Based on the nature of the causes of emergencies, they can be divided into two large groups:

conflict;
conflict-free.

The first group includes all types of emergencies caused by military actions, conflicts on religious and ethnic grounds, terrorist acts, rampant crime, revolutions, riots, etc. These are emergencies caused by destructive human actions or conflicts between groups of people. Emergencies of the second type include industrial accidents and disasters and natural emergencies, as well as environmental disasters.

Emergencies can be unintentional and intentional. In the latter case, we are usually talking about terrorist attacks.

The most important factor by which an emergency is classified and assessed is its scale and the amount of damage caused by the emergency. Here, the consequences of emergencies are assessed: the size of the focus of damage, losses among the population, damage to infrastructure and the environment. This aspect is very important for planning and carrying out emergency rescue and other operations.

Damage from emergencies can be direct and indirect (indirect). The first type includes the cost of destruction and damage, damage from the failure of economic facilities, damage to natural resources, disability of workers due to injury. Indirect damage: economic losses due to the interruption of economic activity, the costs of eliminating the consequences of emergencies, social security of the population affected by the introduction of a state of emergency, etc. Often, indirect damage is much more direct and can have a negative impact on the country's economy for decades.

Based on the classification by the degree of damage, emergencies are:

Local character. In this case, the emergency zone does not go beyond the territory of the facility where the incident occurred. The death toll does not exceed ten people, and the damage is 100 thousand rubles;
Municipal character. The emergency zone does not go beyond the boundaries of a settlement or a city of federal significance. The number of victims does not exceed 50 people, and the amount of damage is 5 million rubles;
Inter-municipal character. In such an emergency, the affected area extends to several settlements, the number of victims exceeds 50 people, and the material damage is over 5 million rubles;
Regional in nature. The number of victims is over 50, but not more than 500 people, and the amount of damage is more than 5 million rubles, but does not exceed 500 million rubles. At the same time, the emergency situation does not go beyond the borders of one subject of the Russian Federation;
Interregional in nature. In this case, the emergency zone affects several federal subjects at once, the number of victims is no more than 500 people, and the amount of damage does not exceed 500 million rubles;
Federal character. This group includes an emergency situation, as a result of which the number of victims exceeds 500 people or the amount of material damage exceeds 500 million rubles.

There are also transboundary emergencies, when, for example, an accident or catastrophe occurs outside the Russian borders, but damaging factors have a detrimental effect on our territory. Several years ago, a Chinese enterprise leaked poisonous substances, which then ended up in the Russian part of the Amur.

Also, peacetime emergencies are classified according to the nature of the damaging effect (emergency factor). This point is very important, because it is the nature of the emergency source that determines the nature of rescue and other urgent measures in the disaster zone. The source of the distress can be:

thermal;
mechanical;
biological;
radiation;
chemical.

By the nature of their occurrence, emergencies are divided into:

natural;
technogenic;
ecological;
social;
combined.

According to the speed of development of events, emergency situations are:

sudden - earthquakes, explosions, traffic accidents;
rapid - fires, releases of radioactive or toxic substances;
moderate - floods, volcanic eruptions.

Natural emergencies: general description and features

The most extensive class of emergencies, which includes disasters caused by natural forces of nature. This group includes earthquakes, droughts, tornadoes, mudflows, dust storms, hurricanes, snow avalanches in the mountains, volcanic eruptions and much more. It is so numerous that it has been divided into several subgroups for convenience.

For example, there are emergencies caused by hydrometeorological phenomena, such as strong winds, too heavy precipitation, snowfalls, droughts, etc. The Roshydromet Center is engaged in the prevention of emergencies of this type in our country.

Climatic natural phenomena are the most frequent culprit for emergencies on the planet. Moreover, it is they who are responsible for most of the victims that occur in natural emergencies. According to the UN, this figure reaches 90%.

The second type of natural emergencies is hazardous geophysical events such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. They have no equal in destructive ability. A strong earthquake may well destroy a large city, causing the death of hundreds of thousands of people. Volcanoes have no less destructive power - the fate of the Roman city of Pompeii is a clear proof of this.

Unfortunately, we cannot yet confidently predict such destructive natural phenomena, therefore, the protection of the population and territories from emergencies of this type is very difficult. All that remains is to deal with their consequences. Almost 40% of the territory of Russia belongs to the zone of increased seismic hazard, and 9% may experience earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 7-8 points.

Another dangerous subgroup of natural emergencies is geological emergencies. These include landslides, mudflows, soil subsidence, avalanches, and dust storms.

A separate subgroup of natural emergencies includes various marine natural phenomena: typhoons, tsunamis, severe storms, intense ice drift. It is clear that such emergencies are dangerous for coastal areas, in addition, they cause significant damage to shipping and marine fisheries.

Also, natural emergencies include mass destruction of farm animals and plants by various diseases or pests. Although these emergency situations do not lead to the death of people and the destruction of material objects, they are fraught with significant economic losses. Veterinary services are involved in the prevention and control of such emergencies of this type.

Forest fires are a traditional natural emergency in Russia. This is facilitated by the huge areas of forests on the territory of our country. Annually from 10 to 30 thousand fires of various sizes and complexity are recorded. They cause enormous damage to the country's economy.

Technogenic emergencies, their description and features

Technogenic emergencies include emergencies associated with emergency situations at various technical facilities: factories, power plants, pipelines, storage facilities, transport, etc. This group is also quite numerous and heterogeneous. It includes various types of emergencies, differing both in their nature (damaging factors) and in scale.

The most difficult and dangerous accidents are considered, which can lead to the release of toxic chemical or radioactive substances. Such incidents pose a significant threat to human health and the natural environment. Leaks of biologically hazardous substances are no less dangerous.

Man-made emergencies include transport accidents, fires at industrial facilities, collapse of buildings and structures.

Particularly dangerous are emergencies associated with the critical infrastructure of settlements: failures of power grids, city sewage treatment plants, heating networks, etc. A modern man is very dependent on all this, a power outage in a big city, at least for a day, completely disrupts the normal rhythm of his life. Such emergencies are by no means uncommon.

Another type of dangerous man-made emergencies is accidents at hydraulic structures: dams, dams. They can lead to numerous casualties and flooding of large areas.

Environmental emergencies and their impact on flora and fauna

Environmental emergencies - the creation of an environment in a certain area, which has a detrimental effect on the flora and fauna, as well as the general state of the water and air environment. The cause of this type of emergency may be a serious man-made accident or natural disaster, ineffective (or even simply barbaric) human economic activity.

An example of a man-made accident that led to an environmental emergency is the tragic events at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which resulted in the alienation of vast territories. However, the thoughtless attitude of man to nature leads to disasters and emergencies much more often than accidents. For example, subsoil mining causes soil subsidence, landslides and landslides, and deforestation reduces biodiversity, causes mudflows and floods. Large-scale emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere can seriously raise the level of the oceans and flood coastal areas.

Social emergencies

This type of emergency occurs as a result of an acute conflict between social groups. The reasons for such a disaster are completely different: political or religious contradictions, the difficult economic situation in the country, social injustice. Social emergencies include revolutions, riots, armed conflicts.

Terrorism, which is considered to be a kind of political struggle, is also often referred to as social emergencies. The consequences of terrorist attacks are very serious, and they not only cause material damage and kill innocent people, but also create an atmosphere of fear and mistrust in society. Currently, the problem of global terrorism is very acute, it can be called one of the main challenges of modern civilization.

Internal troops and other military formations may be involved to prevent terrorist attacks or eliminate their consequences.

It is rather difficult to prevent social emergencies, because the reasons for their occurrence are very subjective and not always clear. To eliminate and prevent social upheavals, serious complex work of special services, politicians, doctors, psychologists, and the media is required. Poverty, unemployment, lack of prospects, inequality and lawlessness are the breeding ground for various social explosions and civil strife.

Combined emergencies

Emergencies of this type are a combination of emergencies of several of the above types at once, which are observed in a certain territory. Moreover, the combinations are different. Very often, man-made or natural emergencies lead to riots or even armed conflicts. For example, one of the prerequisites for the outbreak of unrest in Syria, which then escalated into a civil war, was a significant drought, which led to a shortage and rise in the cost of food. Similar stories often happened in the past: the immediate cause of the 1917 revolution in Russia was interruptions in the supply of grain to St. Petersburg.

Man-made accidents often lead to environmental disasters, protests and riots are often observed in areas affected by hostilities.

The combined nature of emergencies significantly complicates the protection of the population and territories from emergencies and the elimination of its consequences.

Principles of public protection in emergency situations

How to protect citizens and minimize damage from emergencies? Is there a single universal recipe for protecting the population from disasters and disasters so different in nature? And who is responsible for dealing with emergencies?

In our country, the state policy in the field of protecting the population from emergencies is carried out by a special structure - the Ministry of Emergency Situations. This ministry carries out legal regulation in this area, as well as oversees and controls in the field of civil defense. It is a paramilitary organization that is allowed to acquire and use weapons.

In 1995, to counter natural disasters and emergencies, the RSChS was created - a unified system for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations. It includes the resources and forces of the central authorities, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local governments, organizations that deal with the issue of protecting territories and the population from emergencies.

RSChS is aimed at performing two functions:

prevention of disasters and reduction of possible damage from emergencies;
elimination of the consequences of emergencies and carrying out emergency rescue and other necessary work in the emergency zone.

The emergency prevention and response system has a hierarchical structure, it is divided into several levels. Each of them has created governing bodies, forces and means to solve the necessary tasks and take measures to protect the population and territories.

The most important element of the prevention of emergencies and the fight against their consequences is civil defense (CD). This is a whole range of measures to protect the population and material assets from the dangers arising from military operations or man-made accidents and natural emergencies. Civil defense can be called one of the most important functions of any state, which in its importance is not inferior to supporting the country's adequate defense capability.

The tasks of civil defense include:

notification of the population about a possible threat of an enemy attack, the use of weapons of mass destruction by him, man-made accidents, natural disasters and the procedure for action in such situations;
preparation of shelters and protective structures;
providing the population with personal protective equipment;
if necessary, the civil defense service organizes the evacuation of the population to safe areas;
ensuring the protection of food supplies, water supply systems, farm animals from contamination with poisonous and radioactive substances, as well as biological agents;
educating the population on how to protect themselves in emergencies;
civil defense forces are required to have an advance plan for the defense of a particular territory.

The structure of the GO is built according to the production and territorial principles. The head of any enterprise is also the head of its civil defense. A similar rule applies to administrative-territorial entities. The head of the civil defense is responsible for the readiness of the territory or facility to withstand emergencies, accidents and natural disasters.

Our world is a very dangerous and unpredictable place. A person is obliged to remember this and be ready at any moment to resist the formidable forces of nature or machines that have emerged from under his control. In this matter, the work of state emergency services is, of course, very important, but much more important is our ability to meet face to face with the unfolding element.

If you have any questions - leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them.

The problem of emergency situations has remained relevant almost always. Probably, everyone should know what emergencies are and what types of them are. In this article, the concept will be given, as well as the main classifications, compiled depending on the nature and consequences of emergency situations.

Emergency concept

To date, an incredible number of interpretations of the concept of "emergency situation" have been presented. You can, however, highlight the most common definition, most often used by various sources. It states that an emergency is a situation that has developed in a certain territory, formed due to dangerous phenomena. What are these dangerous phenomena? As a rule, these are natural disasters, man-made or chemical accidents, or other forms of disasters. All of them necessarily entail danger to human life or health, destruction or destruction of various material values or resources, etc.

The concept presented above also includes certain species. What kind of species they are and how they are classified will be discussed later.

Classification of emergency situations by the nature of the origin of events

The first and main classification, which is worth talking about, depends on the nature and conditions of the origin of various hazardous events.

What types of emergencies can be distinguished here? There are four main groups.

Technogenic emergencies... In short, accidents considered technogenic include transport accidents, explosions or explosion threats, some types of fires, release or threat of release of various toxic chemicals, radioactive or biological substances, destruction of buildings, buildings or structures. This should also include accidents and disasters that occurred on engineering networks, threats of accidents or direct disasters on dams, dams, other water structures, etc. The types of technogenic emergencies are thus quite numerous and extensive.
Military emergencies... This group is characterized by massive and extensive activities to destroy or infect certain areas. The use of weapons of mass destruction is at the forefront of this group. This includes religious, social, political explosions and unrest, terrorism, confrontation between states and much more.
Socio-political emergencies... All types of emergencies in this group can be characterized as anti-constitutional and terrorist. As a rule, this includes kidnapping, taking a group of persons hostage, illegal arms trade, etc. Socio-political emergencies are characterized as dangerous phenomena that have arisen as a result of social and political conflicts.
Natural disasters... They are characterized by extremely dangerous natural phenomena. There are many types of different situations included in this group. However, they all lead, as a rule, to a disease of people, massive damage to biological beings, etc. A natural emergency is called a situation that has developed in a certain territory, which is dangerous due to a source that can cause harm to the environment, population, material culture etc.

Thus, the four groups listed above are considered the basis for all further classifications and subtypes.

Classification of emergency situations on a territorial basis

The next most important classification is associated with the territorial distribution of hazardous phenomena. The main types of emergencies in this case are again divided into four groups. Among them:

Facility-level emergency... This type of hazardous phenomena applies only to certain objects, zones or small areas. The main feature of this group is that the consequences of emergency situations do not go beyond the boundaries of the object itself. An example is the sanitary protection zone where the accident occurred.
Emergencies at the terrain level... This type of hazardous phenomena is somewhat similar to the previous one, because an accident occurs, as a rule, at a certain object. However, the consequences of the disaster that have happened can go far beyond the designated area. They can concern a certain percentage of the population, a certain part of the territories, etc. Emergencies at the local level invariably entail budgetary costs and a deterioration in the general economic situation.
Emergencies at the regional level... Similar to the previous group, but slightly more extensive. They can develop in two regions or districts at once (but no more). The main types of emergency situations, referred to as regional, threaten a fairly significant part of the population and spread over large territories and regions.
National emergency... This is the last and most serious stage. This group includes only those dangerous phenomena that apply to more than two territorial entities (be it a region or a region, an autonomy or a city of federal significance). A feature of this group is that more funds are allocated to eliminate the consequences of emergencies (in other words, one of the criteria for determining this group will be the fact that the state budget does not adequately eliminate the consequences of emergencies).

Some sources highlight the concept of a global emergency. It applies only if several states are at risk at once.

Thus, the classification presented above is rather structured and concise; there is all the necessary information about the types of emergencies on a territorial basis.

What is a "man-made emergency"?

The types of man-made emergencies are incredibly extensive. It will hardly be possible to bring them all at once. However, the first thing that will have to be done is to reveal the concept of "man-made emergencies".

Here is one of the most accurate and well-known definitions: a man-made emergency is a certain type of situation in which the normal living conditions of people are disrupted, significant damage to material values and property of people is caused, certain territories become unsuitable for life, the environment and nature deteriorate ...

What is the source of the emergency in this case? For a group of hazardous phenomena called "technogenic", the key concept will be an accident. It is an accident and various kinds of emergency situations that entail a threat to the life and health of living beings. An accident is always a man-made incident accompanied by a disruption of transport or production processes. What types of man-made emergencies exist will be discussed later.

The first group of man-made emergencies

The types of man-made emergencies are divided into certain groups. Below we will talk about the most basic types of phenomena of this kind with examples.

The first group of emergencies, which are man-made, are traffic accidents... What concerns them? As a rule, these are accidents with trains - passenger or freight; major car accidents with a large number of victims; ship accidents - large passenger or cargo; plane crashes - with planes or missile systems.
The next group is release of chemically hazardous or radioactive substances... Probably the most common types of man-made emergencies belong to this group. Here the following phenomena can be distinguished: loss of sources of hazardous substances; release and spread of chemical or radioactive substances during their production; accidents in the production of the nuclear fuel cycle and much more. The group of accidents with the release of hazardous substances is considered one of the most dangerous and terrible in the class of man-made emergencies due to the consequences that cover large territories and groups of the population.
Another group is fires and explosions or their threat... As an example, we can cite disasters at industrial facilities, at production facilities for the extraction and transportation of chemicals, in underground areas (metro, mines, etc.) and even in ordinary living quarters.

The second group of man-made emergencies

What other man-made emergencies exist? The types and classification of such dangerous phenomena will be given below.

Biological release accidents that are considered dangerous. Accidents of this kind occur, as a rule, at industrial enterprises, in research laboratories or centers. However, there is a likelihood of such disasters occurring in vehicles of a special type.
Group of hydrodynamic accidents... From the name it can already be clear what these species are. The causes of emergencies, called hydrodynamic, are associated, as a rule, with the breakthrough of dams, dams, sluices, with the beginning and spread of floods, with flooding, etc.
Accidents on utility systems... They happen on heating and sewerage networks, on gas pipelines, in drinking water supply systems, etc.
The last thing that can be attributed to is sudden collapse of residential buildings and public buildings.

Thus, the species and called technogenic, it is quite easy to recognize and structure.

What is a "natural emergency"?

A natural emergency is a situation in a certain territory that is dangerous because of a source that can cause harm to the environment, population, material culture, etc. Emergencies that are natural are usually expressed in the form of dangerous natural processes or phenomena.

Depending on the scale and intensity of the disaster, the group of emergencies under consideration is divided into three main classes:

Adverse natural phenomena... They are characterized as relatively small, but still negative processes, one way or another affecting human life and health.
Natural disasters. These are destructive natural-anthropogenic processes and large-scale phenomena, entailing significant losses and destruction.
Natural disasters... This is a subspecies of an especially large scale and entailing huge sacrifices.

What are the main types of natural emergencies? This will be discussed further.

Types of natural emergencies

At the moment, there is a unified classification of natural hazards and natural disasters. That is why all types of natural emergencies will be fairly easy to structure. There are eight types of natural emergencies in total.

Cosmogenic emergencies... As it is already clear from the name, this group is associated with space objects, one way or another capable of harming the planet (these are asteroids, meteorites, comets, magnetic storms, etc.).
Geophysical Emergencies... These include various tremors (earthquakes) and volcanic eruptions.
Geological emergencies... Probably the broadest group of natural hazards. The most important things that can be distinguished here are landslides, soil subsidence and sandstorms.
Meteorological emergencies... This group includes the most dangerous types of natural emergencies: tornado, hurricane, storm, squall, etc.
Hydrometeorological emergencies... This group includes the threat of water or snow objects (rain, snowfall, ice, fog, etc.).
Marine hydrological emergencies... All floods, typhoons, hazardous ice and other phenomena associated with the sea can be attributed to this group.
Hydrological emergencies... Again, this group is associated with a water threat. This includes floods, floods, flooding, and so on.
Fires... Any natural fires (forest, steppe, peat, underground, etc.) belong to this group.

All types of natural emergencies are thus very conveniently and clearly classified.

Basic data on natural disasters

Natural disasters are among the most common on the planet. Above, the types were discussed. Characteristics and analysis of natural disasters should also be given for a better understanding of the general situation in the world.

Every year the number of victims of natural disasters increases by 4.4%, and the number of victims - by 8.7%. The total number of economic losses is also growing - by an average of 6% per year.

There are many opinions about natural disasters. One of them is associated with the growing anthropogenic impact on the environment. People are extremely irrational in the extraction of natural resources, their actions are increasingly destroying the ozone layer, and are pursuing an extremely ineffective policy to protect the environment. Naturally, all these factors cannot but influence the gradual deterioration of the situation.

Only on the territory of Russia can be identified about 30 dangerous natural phenomena. The most common of these are, of course, hurricanes (28%), earthquakes (24%), forest fires (25%) and floods (19%). The total damage from natural emergencies each year is about 12 billion rubles.

Military emergencies

What are "military emergencies"? The concept, types and structure of this group of emergency situations will be given below.

The concept of military emergencies is incredibly broad. This includes religious, social, political explosions and unrest, terrorism, confrontation between states and much more. There are many different classifications of wartime emergencies. However, it is worth highlighting only the most basic types.

Direct impact of damaging agents... The use of biological, bacteriological, chemical, psychotropic and other types of weapons belongs to this type of military emergency.
Indirect impact of damaging means... The emergence of foci of biological contamination or simple fires, the destruction of chemically and biologically hazardous objects and much more belongs to the presented type.
Habitat change resulting in significant damage and harm... This includes the disruption of the supply of food, water, the destruction of residential buildings, the destruction of heat supply systems, and so on.

Thus, the consequences of military emergencies can be truly dire and destructive, even surpassing the consequences of natural emergencies.

Socio-political emergencies

The group of socio-political emergencies is somewhat similar to the class of military emergencies. However, there are still some structural differences. Thus, socio-political emergencies are characterized as dangerous phenomena that have arisen as a result of social and political conflicts.

There are two main groups of the considered phenomena: these are actually social and political. In some classifications, one more group is distinguished - military emergencies, however, it, as a separate class, has already been considered above.

So, what is related to socio-political emergencies?

Hunger... This is an extremely dangerous phenomenon, characterized by an insufficient amount of food and water in certain areas.
Alcoholism... It is considered as an emergency only if it affects a significant part of the population.
Addiction... It should be noted that the number of drug addicts is growing strongly every year.
Smoking... This phenomenon is considered as a subspecies of drug addiction and is also included in the group of social emergencies.
Corruption. Refers specifically to the group of social emergencies, arises as a result of insufficient capacity of the legislative and legal system.
Unemployment... A subspecies of political emergencies. It is characterized by the inability to find a job for a certain part of the working-age population.
Terrorism... Refers to the group of political emergencies. This is a kind of intimidation of the population in order to achieve certain goals, which has many very different subspecies.

If humanity has enough wisdom to recognize and prevent impending danger, a wonderful future awaits it, if not, decline and suffering are inevitable.!

EMERGENCY SITUATIONS OF NATURAL AND TECHNOGENIC CHARACTER

Introduction

Chapter 1. Natural emergencies

Chapter 2. Technogenic emergencies

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Natural disasters have threatened the inhabitants of our planet since the beginning of civilization. Somewhere more, somewhere less. One hundred percent security does not exist anywhere. Natural disasters can cause colossal damage, the amount of which depends not only on the intensity of the disasters themselves, but also on the level of development of society and its political structure.

It is statistically calculated that, on the whole, every one hundred thousandth person on Earth dies from natural disasters. According to another calculation, the number of victims of natural disasters in the last 100 years is 16 thousand annually. Natural disasters typically include earthquakes, floods, mudflows, landslides, snow drifts, volcanic eruptions, landslides, droughts, hurricanes, and storms. In some cases, such disasters can also include fires, especially massive forest and peat bogs.

In addition, industrial accidents are dangerous disasters. Accidents at the enterprises of the oil, gas and chemical industries pose a particular danger.

Natural disasters, fires, accidents ... You can meet them in different ways. Confused, even doomed, as people have met various disasters for centuries, or calmly, with unbending faith in their own strength, with the hope of taming them. But only those who, knowing how to act in a given situation, will take the only correct decision can confidently accept the challenge of disasters: they will save themselves, help others, prevent, as far as they can, the destructive effect of natural forces. Natural disasters occur suddenly, completely devastate the territory, destroy homes, property, communications, power sources. One major catastrophe, like an avalanche, is followed by others: hunger, infections.

Are we really so defenseless against earthquakes, tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions? That advanced technology cannot prevent these disasters, and if not prevent, then at least predict and warn about them? After all, this would significantly limit the number of victims and the amount of damage! We are nowhere near as helpless. We can predict some disasters, and we can successfully resist some. However, any action against natural processes requires a good knowledge of them. It is necessary to know how they arise, the mechanism, conditions of propagation and all other phenomena associated with these disasters. It is necessary to know how the displacements of the earth's surface occur, why there is a rapid rotational movement of air in a cyclone, how quickly the masses of rocks can collapse along the slope. Many phenomena still remain a mystery, but, I think, only for the next years or decades.

In the broad sense of the word, an emergency situation (ES) refers to the situation in a certain territory, which has developed as a result of an accident, a hazardous natural phenomenon, a catastrophe, natural or other disaster that may or did entail human casualties, damage to human health or the surrounding natural environment. environment, significant material losses and violation of the living conditions of people. Each emergency has its own physical nature, causes and nature of development, as well as its own characteristics of the impact on a person and his environment.

For reasons of occurrence, four types of emergency situations are distinguished: natural (natural disasters), man-made (industrial), environmental and social.

Classification of emergencies according to three criteria:

1. Sphere of origin.

2. Departmental affiliation.

3. The scale of possible consequences: - local;

Local;

Territorial;

Regional;

Federal;

Cross-border.

Chapter 1. Natural emergencies

1.1 Characteristics and classification of natural emergencies

1. 2 Landslides

Most of the earth's surface is slopes. Slopes include areas of the surface with inclination angles exceeding 1 degree. They occupy at least 3/4 of the land area.

The steeper the slope, the more significant the component of the gravity force, which tends to overcome the cohesion force of the rock particles and displace them down. Gravity is helped or hindered by the structural features of the slopes: the strength of rocks, the alternation of layers of different composition and their slope, groundwater, weakening the forces of adhesion between rock particles. Slope collapse can be caused by subsidence - separation of a large block of rock from the slope. Subsidence is typical of steep slopes with dense fractured rocks (eg limestone). Depending on the combination of these factors, slope processes take on a different appearance.

At the site of the landslide breakage, there remains a bowl-shaped depression with a ledge in the upper part - the wall of the breakdown. A sliding landslide covers the lower parts.

Landslides are the movement of rock masses downhill due to gravity. They are formed in various rocks as a result of imbalance and weakening of their strength and are caused by both natural and artificial causes. Natural reasons include an increase in the steepness of slopes, undermining their foundations by sea and river waters, seismic shocks, etc. Artificial, or man-made, i.e. caused by human activity, landslides are caused by the destruction of slopes by road cuts, excessive soil removal, deforestation, etc. According to international statistics, up to 80% of modern landslides are associated with human activities. See Landslide longitudinal section.

At the site of the landslide breakage, there remains a bowl-shaped depression with a ledge in the upper part - the wall of the breakdown. A sliding landslide covers the lower parts of the slope with either bumps or steps. A landslide can push loose rocks in front of it, from which a landslide wall is formed at the foot of the slope. Landslides can occur on all slopes with a steepness of 20 degrees, and on clay soils - with a slope steepness of 5-7 degrees. Landslides can occur from all slopes at any time of the year.

Landslides can be classified according to the type and condition of the material. Some are made entirely of rock material, others are only soil material, and still others are a mixture of ice, rock and clay. Snow landslides are called avalanches. For example, a landslide mass consists of stone material; stone material is granite, sandstone; it can be strong or fractured, fresh or weathered, etc. On the other hand, if the landslide mass is formed by fragments of rocks and minerals, that is, as they say, the material of the soil layer, then it can be called a landslide of the soil layer. It can consist of a very fine granular mass, that is, of clays, or a coarser material: sand, gravel, etc .; all this mass can be dry or water-saturated, homogeneous or layered. Landslides can be classified according to other criteria: the speed of movement of the landslide mass, the scale of the phenomenon, activity, power of the landslide process, place of formation, etc.

From the point of view of the impact on people and construction work, the rate of development and movement of a landslide is its only important feature. It is difficult to find ways to protect against the rapid and usually unexpected movement of large masses of rocks, and this often causes harm to people and their property. If a landslide moves very slowly over months or years, then it rarely causes accidents and preventive measures can be taken. In addition, the rate of development of a phenomenon usually determines the ability to predict this development, for example, precursors of a future landslide in the form of cracks that appear and expand over time can be detected. But on particularly unstable slopes, these first cracks can form so quickly or in such inaccessible places that they are not noticed, and a sharp displacement of a large mass of rocks occurs suddenly. In the case of slowly developing movements of the earth's surface, it is possible to notice a change in the features of the relief and the distortion of buildings and engineering structures even before a major movement. In this case, it is possible to evacuate the population without waiting for the destruction.

However, even when the speed of the landslide does not increase, this phenomenon on a large scale can create a difficult, and sometimes not solvable problem. Currently, the solution to most engineering problems is purely cost and policy considerations, and the cost of field research and reinforcement of a sliding slope of thousands of cubic meters is high. For example, in the event of a landslide near Portuugs Bend (Los Angeles County, California), after an initial displacement of about 10 meters in 1956, the surface area of 2-3 square meters continues to slide continuously. km at a speed of several meters per year. The mechanics of this movement were investigated in more or less detail, and it turned out that the measures by which it would be possible to stop the landslide would cost about $ 10 million; the local authorities would hardly consider it possible to spend that kind of money on strengthening this largely non-industrial area. Therefore, the Portyugis Bend landslide continues to move now. The rate of a landslide depends on the mechanism of its formation and the properties of the material. For example, in mountainous areas, earthquakes are usually accompanied by landslides and landslides. With a sufficiently steep topography and unstable slopes, seismogenic landslides can be the main factor in changing the earth's surface. The San Fernando (California 1971) earthquake recorded several thousand landslides and landslides in the nearby San Gabriel Mountains. The landslides were also typical for the earthquake in Inangahua (New Zealand in 1968).

Another process that sometimes causes rapid movement of surface rocks is the undermining of the foot of the slope by sea waves or a river. It is convenient to classify landslides by speed. In its most general form, rapid landslides or landslides occur within seconds or minutes; landslides develop at an average rate over a period of time measured in minutes or hours; slow landslides form and move over a period ranging from a few days to several years.

In terms of scale, landslides are subdivided into large, medium and small-scale. Large landslides are usually caused by natural causes.

Large landslides are usually caused by natural causes and form along the slopes for hundreds of meters. Their thickness reaches 10-20 m and more. The landslide body often retains its solidity.

Medium and small-scale landslides are characteristic of anthropogenic processes.

Landslides can be active and inactive, which is determined by the degree of entrapment of the bedrock of the slopes and the speed of movement, which can range from 0.06 m / year to 3 m / s.

The activity of landslides is influenced by the rocks of the slopes, as well as the presence of moisture in them. Depending on the quantitative indicators of the presence of water, landslides are divided into dry, slightly moist, wet and very wet.

According to the place of formation, landslides are subdivided into mountain, underwater, snow and landslides arising in connection with the construction of artificial earth structures (pits, canals, rock dumps, etc.).

In terms of thickness, landslides can be small, medium, large and very large and are characterized by the volume of displaced rocks, which can range from several hundred cubic meters to 1 million cubic meters or more.

Landslides can destroy settlements, destroy agricultural land, create a hazard during the operation of quarries and mining, damage communications, tunnels, pipelines, telephone and electrical networks, water facilities, mainly dams. In addition, they can block a valley, form a dam lake, and contribute to flooding. Thus, the economic damage they cause can be significant.

Landslides have been known since ancient times. It is believed that the largest in the world in terms of the amount of landslide material (mass 50 billion tons, volume about 20 cubic km) was the landslide that occurred at the beginning of the present. NS. in the valley of the Saidmarreh River in southern Iran. The landslide mass fell from a height of 900 m (Mount Kabir-Bukh), crossed an 8 km wide river valley, crossed a 450 m high ridge and stopped 17 km from the place of origin. At the same time, due to the blocking of the river, a lake 65 km long and 180 m deep was formed. In Russian chronicles, mentions of grandiose landslides on river banks, for example, a catastrophic landslide at the beginning of the 15th century, have been preserved. in the region of Nizhny Novgorod: "... And by God's will, sin for our sake, a mountain slid from above over the settlement, and a hundred and fifty households with people and all kinds of cattle fell asleep in the settlement ...". The magnitude of a landslide disaster depends on the degree of development and population of the landslide-prone area. The most devastating landslides ever recorded were landslides in China's Gansu province on inhabited forest terraces in 1920, killing 100,000 people.

Peru often suffers from the effects of earthquakes as the country lies above a subduction zone in which the Nazca plate sinks beneath the S American Plate. However, none of them was accompanied by such dire consequences as the earthquake of May 31, 1970, the source of which was in the Pacific Ocean, 25 km from the coast, near the city of Chimbote. High on the slope of Mount Huascaran, about 130 km from the source of the earthquake, the tremors loosened the rocks and ice, forming a giant landslide, or rather a rock-ice avalanche. Rushing down the slope, gaining speed and increasing its mass, the avalanche quickly acquired gigantic proportions. It raced at a speed of over 200 km / h down the long valley, clogging it with rock debris, ice and mud and partially destroying the town of Ranrahirka, located 12 km from the mountain. Part of the avalanche turned aside, crossed the high ridge and roared through the town of Yungai. The town was completely destroyed; only a few of its inhabitants were able to escape in high places. One of the survivors compared the approaching avalanche to a giant breaker approaching from the ocean with a deafening roar and roar, and in fact the avalanche height exceeded 30 m.

In these two settlements alone, more than 18,000 people were buried under an avalanche; in total, from this one avalanche, apparently, 25,000 people died. Throughout the area, numerous landslides and destruction of thousands of adobe houses have resulted in more deaths. 67,000 dead and 800,000 homeless, this is the result of this most severe seismic disaster in the Western Hemisphere.

According to the speed of movement, landslides are subdivided:

By activity: - active;

Inactive.

By the mechanism of the process: - shear landslides;

Extrusion;

Viscoplastic;

Hydrodynamic removal;

Sudden liquefaction.

At the place of education: - mountain;

Underwater;

Adjacent;

Artificial earthworks.

1. 3 Sat down

In hydrology, mudflow is understood as a flood with a very high concentration of mineral particles, stones and rock debris (up to 50-60% of the flow volume), which occurs in the basins of small mountain rivers and dry ravines and is usually caused by heavy rainfall or rapid melting of snow. Mud is a cross between liquid and solid mass. This phenomenon is short-term (usually it lasts 1-3 hours), typical for small streams up to 25-30 km long and with a catchment area of up to 50-100 sq. km.

The mudflow is a formidable force. A stream of a mixture of water, mud and stones rushes down the river, pulling up trees by the roots, tearing down bridges, destroying dams, ripping off the slopes of the valley, destroying crops. Being close to the mudflow, you can feel the shuddering of the earth under the impact of stones and boulders, the smell of sulphurous gas from rubbing stones against each other, you can hear a strong noise, similar to the roar of a stone crusher.

The danger of mudflows is not only in their destructive power, but also in the suddenness of their appearance. After all, a downpour in the mountains often does not cover the foothills, and mudflows appear unexpectedly in inhabited places. Due to the high speed of the current, the time from the moment a mudflow occurs in the mountains to the moment it emerges in the foothills is sometimes estimated at 20-30 minutes.

Mudflows are observed in all mountainous regions of the country. Mountains of the Caucasus, Carpathians, Crimea, Ural, Pamir, Tien Shan, Altai, Sayan, Barguzinsky, Udakan, Stanovoy, Verkhoyansky, Chersky, Kolymsky ridges - everywhere here from time to time mudflows rumble. Mudflows cover 10% of the territory of the former Soviet Union. In total, about 6,000 mudflow streams have been registered to date, but, apparently, their number exceeds 10,000. More than half of the mudflow channels are in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

Especially great damage is caused by mudflows to cities. The threat of mudflows hangs over 50 cities, including such large ones as Alma-Ata, Yerevan, Frunze, Dushanbe and Tbilisi.

How diverse are the mountains, so diverse are mudflows in relation to the frequency of passage, composition and volume of solid material, maximum discharge, etc. The decisive factor here is not so much the height of the mountains itself, but the steepness of the slopes, or, as they sometimes say, the energy of the relief. The minimum slope of the mudflow is 10 - 15%, the maximum - up to 80 - 100%.

According to the composition of the transferred solid material, mudflows are usually distinguished as follows:

Mud streams. A mixture of water with fine earth with a low concentration of stones. Volumetric weight 1.5-2.0 t / cubic meter;

Mudstone streams. A mixture of water, fine earth, pebbles, gravel, small stones; there are also large stones, but there are few of them, they either fall out of the stream, then again begin to move with it. Volume weight 2.1-2.5 t / cu. m;

Water-stone streams. A mixture of water with predominantly large stones, including boulders and rock debris. Volume weight 1.1 -1.5 t / cu. m.

Mudflows are also subdivided according to the nature of their movement in the channel:

Linked streams. They consist of a mixture of water, clay and sand particles. The solution has the properties of a plastic substance. The flow, as it were, is a single whole. Unlike a water stream, it does not follow the bends of the channel, but destroys and straightens them or passes over obstacles;

Unbound threads. They move at great speed; there is a constant impact of stones, their rolling and abrasion. The stream mainly follows the bends of the channel, subjecting it here and there to destruction.

Finally, mudflows are also classified by the volume of the transferred solid mass:

With huge mudflows from 1 sq. km of the selenium basin, on average, 20-50 thousand cubic meters are demolished. m of solid material, or 50-120 thousand tons. As an example, we can cite three cases of a huge mudflow registered in the area of Alma-Ata. (1921, 1963 and 1973), and one case - in the area of Alma-Ata. Yerevan (1946). Mudflows occur when three conditions are met simultaneously:

The presence on the slopes of the basin of a sufficient amount of products of destruction of rocks;

Availability of the required volume of water for flushing or demolition of loose solid material from the slopes and its subsequent movement along the channels;

The presence of a steep slope and watercourse.

The main reason for the destruction of rocks lies in the sharp intraday fluctuations in air temperature. So, in the summer months in the mountainous regions of Turkmenistan and Armenia, the daily amplitude of air temperature fluctuations reaches 50-60 ° C. This leads to the emergence of numerous cracks in the rock and its fragmentation. The described process is facilitated by periodic freezing and thawing of water filling the cracks. The frozen water, expanding in volume, presses against the walls of the crack with tremendous force. In addition, rocks are destroyed due to chemical weathering (dissolution and oxidation of mineral particles by subsurface and ground waters), as well as due to organic weathering under the influence of micro - and macroorganisms. In most cases, the cause of the formation of mudflows is heavy rainfall, less often intense melting of snow, as well as breakthroughs of moraine and dammed lakes, avalanches, landslides, earthquakes. However, each mountainous region is characterized by certain statistics of the causes of mudflows. For example, in general for the Caucasus, the causes of mudflows are distributed as follows: rains and downpours - 85%, melting of eternal snows - 6%, discharge of melt water from moraine lakes - 5%, breakthroughs of dammed lakes - 4%. But in the Zailiyskiy Alatau, all the large and huge mudflows observed are caused by the breakthrough of moraine and dammed lakes.

In general terms, the process of formation of a torrential mudflow proceeds as follows. Initially, the water fills the pores and cracks, while simultaneously rushing down the slope. In this case, the adhesion forces between the particles sharply weaken, and the loose rock comes into a state of unstable equilibrium. Then the water begins to flow over the surface. The first to move are small soil particles, then pebbles and rubble, and finally stones and boulders. The process is growing like an avalanche. All this mass enters the ravine or channel and draws new masses of loose rock into motion. If the water flow is insufficient, then the mudflow seems to fizzle out. Small particles and small stones are carried down by the water, large stones create a chimney in the channel. The mudflow can also stop as a result of the attenuation of the current speed with a decrease in the slope of the river. No definite frequency of mudflows is observed. It is noted that the formation of mud and mud-stone flows is facilitated by the previous dry, long weather. At the same time, masses of fine clay and sand particles accumulate on the mountain slopes. They are washed away by the downpour. The previous rainy weather favors the pressure of water-stone streams. After all, the solid material for these streams is mainly found at the foot of steep slopes and in riverbeds and streams. In the case of good previous moisture, the connection of stones with each other and with the bedrock weakens.

Heavy debris flows are of an episodic nature. Over the course of a number of years, dozens of significant floods may pass, and only then, in a very rainy year, a mudflow will occur. It happens that mudflows are observed on the river quite often. Indeed, in any relatively large mudflow basin there are many mudflow centers, and showers cover one or the other hearth. So, on the Baksan river for three years in a row (1960-1962) powerful mudflows passed, each time leaving 100-200 thousand cubic meters in the river valley. m of friable material. In the upper part of the Terek basin along the rivers Teri-Don, Gimra-Don and others, in a very rainy 1953, a number of powerful mud-stone and water-stone mudflows passed. We also add that most of the villages are timed to coincide with the evening and night hours of the day. The reason is that strong daytime air warming over the plains leads to the rapid development of ascending air currents and the formation of cumulus clouds, then the air cools down at night and precipitation falls. Sometimes a mudflow is triggered by an earthquake. A striking example of this is the 10-point Khant earthquake in July 1949 in Central Asia. In different parts of the Yarkhich River basin (the right tributary of the Vakhsh), there were massive landslides and avalanches, blocking the mountain rivers for a short time. Due to the passage of the mudflow, the villages of Khant, Yarkhichkala and others were destroyed.

Areas of active volcanoes are also dangerous. For example, the explosion of the Bezymyanny volcano in Kamchatka on March 30, 1956 and the settling of large masses of hot ash on the slopes led to rapid melting of snow. A powerful mudflow passed along the Sukhaya Khapitsa River. The possible scale of this kind of phenomenon is evidenced by the tragic incident that occurred in Colombia at the end of November 1985. As a result of the eruption of the Ruiz volcano and the ensuing violent snowmelt, dozens of powerful mudflows rushed into the valleys simultaneously from the mountain slopes. The city of Armero was buried under a layer of mud and stones. In one way or another, 200,000 people were injured, 23,000 people died and went missing, 4,500 houses were completely destroyed. The total material damage exceeded $ 175 million.

It is clear that far from all the mudflows that have happened are registered. After all, many of them occur high in the mountains, where there is almost no population. Some of them can be judged by indirect signs. For example, on the morning of April 29, 1962, on the Pyanj River near the Chubek village, the water level suddenly dropped by 2 m. As it turned out later during an aircraft survey, mudflows took place on the Pyanj tributaries. Pyanj in three places was blocked by fan cones. Already in the afternoon the dams were swept away, only their traces remained.

Many mountainous regions are characterized by the predominance of one or another type of mudflow in terms of the composition of the transferred solid mass. So, in the Carpathians, water-stone mudflows of relatively small thickness are most often found. Mainly mud-stone streams pass in the North Caucasus. As a rule, mud flows descend from the mountain ranges surrounding the Fergana Valley in Central Asia.

It is essential that a mudflow, unlike a water flow, does not move continuously, but in separate shafts, then, almost stopping, then again accelerating the movement. This is due to the delay of the mudflow mass in the narrowing of the channel, on sharp turns, in places of a sharp decrease in the slope. If the usual speed of the mud flow is 2.5-4.0 m / s, then in case of breakthroughs of congestion it sometimes reaches 8-10 m / s; water consumption increases 3-5 times. The tendency of the mudflow to move in successive shafts is associated not only with congestion, but also with the non-simultaneous inflow of water and loose material from various foci, with the collapse of rocks from the slopes and, finally, with the jamming of large boulders and rock debris in narrowings. The most significant deformations of the channel occur during the breakthroughs of congestions. Sometimes the main channel becomes unrecognizable or is completely covered, and a new channel is developed.

Here are some examples of the passage of destructive mudflows.

On May 25, 1946, an exceptional mudflow occurred on the Gedar River near Yerevan ... The flood began at 20:00. 30 minutes. by local time and in a rapid wave swept through the streets of the central and eastern parts of Yerevan.

Having broken through the right-bank fortified ramparts, an avalanche of stone and earth rushed to the city's quarters, sweeping away and destroying everything in its path. Where buildings blocked the flow, it washed them clean or, entering the building from one side, without changing direction, exited from the opposite side, carrying away all the contents of the houses.

Cars, trees and pillars washed away on the streets, together with basalt blocks, rushed into courtyards and often got stuck in the basements of houses. The steel rails and girders of the destroyed bridges twisted in the most bizarre ways; cobblestone and asphalt pavements were torn off and carried away by the current.

With its suddenness and speed of ascent, the wave at first resembled a rolling shaft made of water and sediment, including huge stones up to 1.0-1.5 m in diameter. As it moved along the streets, the wave broke and spread, depositing stones and smaller sediments in flooded streets and courtyards.

The flood was caused by a powerful torrential rain that fell twice that day - in the middle of the day and in the evening. Daytime rain with a total precipitation of up to 20 mm did not cause a flood in the Gedar River, since, apparently, it went completely to saturate the soil. The second torrential rain, observed after 20 hours, fell on the soil already saturated with the previous rain. It was he who caused the mudflow, setting in motion the deluvium saturated with water.

The alpine Lake Issyk with clear and transparent water of bluish-green color has long served as a favorite resting place for residents of the city of Alma-Ata. A motor road was laid here, a hotel, a tourist center, and pioneer camps were built on the banks. And on Sunday, July 7, 1963, the lake ceased to exist. That memorable day turned out to be hot, it started to rain around noon. Suddenly, because of the bend of the Issyk River flowing into the lake, a black mud-stone shaft rolled out. Several more passed after the first wave, but the third one turned out to be the largest. Huge waves arose on the lake, which struck the stone lintel that formed the bowl of the lake, one blow after another. In the end, the 50 m high cofferdam was destroyed. Water from the lake rushed down in a raging stream (with a flow rate of up to 1000 cubic meters per second). Mudflow destroyed part of the Issyk village 10 km below the lake. The mudflow spread below this village in the form of a fan 8 km long and 2 km wide. As a specially equipped expedition later found out, a deep moraine lake existed at the edge of the glacier in the valley of the Zhirsai River (the right tributary of the Issyk River). The days preceding the mudflow were hot. The glacier was rapidly melting. The moraine lake overflowed with water, and the edge of the moraine collapsed. Mud delivered about 3 million cubic meters to Lake Issyk. m of stones, mud and forests.

Fast forward to the far east. In 1971, numerous mudflows descended from the northern slope of the Khamar-Dabin ridge (southern Baikal region). They were caused by heavy torrential rains that occurred on July 24-25. The movement involved not only loose rock, but also the soil layer and tall trees. The railway on the Slyudyanka-Tankhoi section and the road between Irkutsk and Chita were damaged.

1.4 Landslides

A collapse is a rapid movement of masses of rocks that form mainly steep slopes of valleys. During the fall, the mass of rocks separated from the slope breaks up into separate blocks, which, in turn, crushing into smaller parts, fill the bottom of the valley. If a river flowed through the valley, then the collapsed masses, forming a dam, give rise to a valley lake. The collapses of the slopes of river valleys are caused by the erosion of the river, especially during floods. In high-altitude areas, the cause of collapses is usually the emerging cracks, which, being saturated with water (and especially when the water freezes), increase in width and depth until the mass separated by the crack is caused by some shock (earthquake) or after heavy rain (especially strong soaking the crack with water) or some other reason, sometimes artificial (for example, a railway excavation or a quarry at the foot of the slope), will not overcome the resistance of the rocks holding it and will not collapse into the valley. The magnitude of the collapse varies in the widest range, starting from the collapse from the slopes of small fragments of rocks, which, accumulating on more gentle slopes, form the so-called. talus, and before the collapse of huge masses, measured in million cubic meters. m, representing huge disasters in cultural countries. At the foot of all the steep slopes of the mountains, you can always see stones that have fallen off from above, and in areas especially favorable for their accumulation, these stones sometimes cover large areas (the so-called "chaos" in Alupka on the Crimean coast, the foot of Mount Taganai in the South Urals, etc. etc.).

When carrying out any work in the mountains, it is necessary to especially carefully find out the areas that are unfavorable for landslides, and, if possible, bypass them. When laying in the slopes of open pits and carrying out excavations, you should always inspect the entire slope, studying the nature and bedding of rocks, the direction of cracks, and joints, so that the development of a quarry does not violate the stability of the overlying rocks. When constructing roads, especially steep slopes are laid with a piece stone dry or on cement.

In high mountain areas, above the snow line, snowfalls often have to be reckoned with. They arise on steep slopes, from where accumulated and often packed snow periodically rolls down. In areas of snow falls, settlements should not be erected, roads must be protected by covered galleries, and forest plantations should be made on the slopes, which best keep the snow from slipping. The landslides are characterized by the power of the landslide process (the volume of falling rock masses) and the scale of manifestation (involvement of the area in the process). According to the power of the landslide process, landslides are subdivided into large (rock separation of more than 10 million cubic meters), medium (from 1 million to 10 million cubic meters) and small (rock separation of less than 1 million cubic meters). According to the scale of manifestation, landslides are subdivided into huge (100 - 200 ha), medium (50 - 100 ha), small (5 - 50 ha) and small (less than 5 ha).

A completely different kind of landslides in areas where rocks are easily leached by water (limestone, dolomite, gypsum, rock salt). Water seeping from the surface very often leaches large voids (caves) in these rocks, and if such a cave was formed near the earth's surface, then upon reaching a large volume, the ceiling of the cave collapses, and a depression (funnel, sinkhole) forms on the surface of the earth; sometimes these depressions are filled with water, and so-called "sinkhole lakes" are formed. Similar phenomena are typical for many areas where the corresponding breeds are common. In these areas, when erecting any structure at the site of each building, it is necessary to carry out a study of the soil in order to avoid the destruction of the constructed buildings. Ignoring such phenomena subsequently necessitates constant repair of the track, which entails high costs (a section of railways near the city of Ufa). In these areas, it is more difficult to resolve issues of water supply, search and calculation of water reserves, as well as the production of hydraulic structures. The direction of underground water flows is extremely whimsical; the construction of dams and excavation of ditches in such places can lead to the occurrence of processes of leaching of rocks, previously protected by artificially removed rocks. Dips are also observed within quarries and mines, due to the collapse of the roof of the rocks over the mined-out spaces. To prevent the destruction of buildings, it is necessary to fill in the worked-out space under them, or to leave the pillars of the developed rocks intact.

Here are some examples of major landslides. If you go from Simferopol to Alushta, then immediately behind the low Angarsk pass a magnificent panorama of the southern coast of Crimea opens up. On the left you can see the massif of Mount Demerdzhi, on the southern ledge crowned with a bizarre figure resembling a sculpture carved out of stone. The western slope of Mount Demerdzhi is steep, several hundred meters high, and at its foot there is a huge blockage of boulders 10-20 m in diameter and weighing hundreds of tons. At the end of the XIX century. on this slope, a little to the side of the cliff, was the village of K-uchu k-Ko. In 1894, as a result of an earthquake, the upper part of the cliff separated and collapsed downward, forming a disorderly heap of powerful boulders, under which there were several outer houses of the village. After the disaster, the village was moved to a new location. Now it is called the village of Luchistoye, and only the remains of gardens remind of the old village.

On August 30, 1966, a powerful landslide occurred again in the same place, the sound of which resembled an explosion; however, the piles left over from the previous collapse delayed the stone avalanche. The collapse was so strong that seismic stations registered it as a local earthquake.

And in the Pamir Mountains there is a narrow and long (about 80 km) Sarez Lake with transparent greenish water. The lake is located in a steep-walled valley, the slopes of which seem to squeeze it from both sides. This beautiful lake was formed in 1911, when more than 7 billion tons of rocks collapsed from the slopes and blocked the Murgab River with a grand dam. A few years later, a high-mountain lake appeared. Most likely, the giant collapse was caused by an earthquake, which happens very often in the Pamirs.

In history, collapses are known that led to large human casualties. So, in 1608, part of the Monte Conto mountain collapsed in the Alps, and in the blink of an eye more than 2 thousand inhabitants of the village of Plur were buried in their homes under a mass of stones and soil. In the same way, on the Apennine Peninsula, under a stone avalanche, he disappeared in the 6th century. the town of Veleia with all its inhabitants, when the collapse occurred on the slopes of Mount Rovinazzo. And there are many such examples. Rock falls are a common occurrence, but they are always formidable, often leading to disasters.

1.5 Landslide control methodsand, mudflows and landslides

Active measures to prevent landslides include the construction of engineering and hydraulic structures.

To prevent landslide processes, retaining walls, counter-banquets, pile rows and other structures are being built. The most effective anti-landslide structures are counterbankets. They are located at the bottom of a potential landslide and, creating an emphasis, prevent the soil from displacing.

Active measures include quite simple ones that do not require significant resources and the consumption of building materials for their implementation, namely:

To reduce the stress state of the slopes, land masses are often cut in the upper part and laid at the foot;

Groundwater above a possible landslide is removed by a drainage system;

Protection of the banks of rivers and seas is achieved by the delivery of sand and pebbles, and the slopes - by sowing grasses, planting trees and shrubs.

Hydraulic structures are also used to protect against mudflows. By the nature of their impact on mudflows, these structures are subdivided into mudflow control, mudflow, mudflow control and mudflow transforming.

Mudflow control structures include mudflow (trays, herring, mudflow diverters), mudflow diverting (dams, retaining walls, sheaths), mudflows (dams, rapids, drops) and mudflow breakers (half-dams, spurs, booms) devices built in front of dams and dams, support walls.

The mudflows are cable mudflows, mudflow fences and mudflow dams. They are set up to trap large debris and pass small parts of the mudflow.

Dam and foundation pits are referred to as mud-retaining hydraulic structures. Dams can be of blind type and with holes. Deaf-type structures are used to trap all types of mountain runoff, and with holes - to trap a solid mass of mudflows and pass water.

Mudflow-transforming hydraulic structures (reservoirs) are used to transfer mudflows into floods by replenishing them with water from reservoirs.

It is more efficient not to stop mudflows, but to direct them past settlements, structures with the help of mudflow channels, mudflow bridges and mudflows.

In landslide-prone places, measures can be taken to transfer certain sections of roads, power lines and objects to a safe place, as well as active measures to set up engineering structures - guide walls designed to change the direction of movement of collapsed rocks.

Along with preventive and protective measures, observation of landslide, mudflow and landslide-prone areas, forerunners of these phenomena and forecasting the occurrence of landslides, mudflows and landslides plays an important role in preventing the occurrence of these natural disasters and in reducing damage from them.

Observation and forecasting systems are organized on the basis of hydrometeorological service institutions and are based on thorough engineering-geological and engineering-hydrological studies. Observations are carried out by specialized landslide and mudflow stations, mudflow parties and posts. Objects of observation are soil movements and landslide movements, changes in water levels in wells, drainage structures, boreholes, rivers and reservoirs, groundwater regimes. The data obtained, characterizing the prerequisites for landslide movements, mudflows and landslides, are processed and presented in the form of long-term (for years), short-term (months, weeks) and emergency (hours, minutes) forecasts.

1.6 Rules of behavior for people in the emergence of a villageout flows, landslides and landslides

The population living in landslide, mudflow and avalanche-prone zones should know the foci, possible directions and characteristics of these dangerous phenomena. On the basis of forecasts, residents are informed in advance about the danger of landslide, mudflow, avalanche centers and their possible zones of action, as well as the procedure for signaling danger. This reduces the impact of stress and panic that can arise when transmitting emergency information about an imminent threat.

The population of dangerous mountainous areas is obliged to take care of strengthening houses and the territory on which they are built, to participate in the construction of protective hydraulic engineering and other engineering structures.

Primary information about the threat of landslides, mudflows and avalanches comes from landslide and mudflow stations, parties and posts of the hydrometeorological service. It is important that this information is communicated to the intended purpose in a timely manner. Notification of the population about natural disasters is carried out in the prescribed manner by means of sirens, radio, television, as well as local warning systems, directly connecting the units of the hydrometeorological service, the Ministry of Emergency Situations with settlements located in hazardous areas.

In case of the threat of a landslide, mudflow or collapse, an early evacuation of the population, farm animals and property to safe places is organized.

The houses or apartments abandoned by residents are brought into a state that helps to reduce the consequences of a natural disaster "and the possible impact of secondary factors, which subsequently facilitates their excavation and restoration. Therefore, the transferred property from the yard or balcony must be removed into the house, the most valuable that cannot be taken with you, covered from exposure to moisture and dirt.Doors, windows, ventilation and other openings tightly close.Turn off electricity, gas, water pipes.Flammable and toxic substances should be removed from the house and placed in remote pits or free-standing cellars. installed for organized evacuation.

In the event that there was no advance warning of the danger and residents were warned of the threat immediately before the onset of a natural disaster or noticed its approach themselves, everyone, not caring about the property, makes an emergency exit to a safe place on their own. At the same time, relatives, neighbors, all people along the way should be warned about the danger. For an emergency exit, you need to know the route to the nearest safe places. These paths are determined and communicated to the population based on the forecast of the most probable directions of the landslide (mudflow) arrival to the given settlement (object). Natural safe routes for an emergency exit from the danger zone are the slopes of mountains and hills, which are not prone to landslide processes. When climbing safe slopes, valleys, gorges and excavations should not be used, since side channels of the main mudflow can form in them. On the way, help should be provided to the sick, the elderly, the disabled, children and the weak. For movement, whenever possible, personal transport, mobile agricultural machinery, riding and pack animals are used.

In the case when people and structures find themselves on the surface of a moving landslide area, you should move upwards as much as possible, beware of rolling blocks, stones, debris, structures, earth wall, talus. At a high speed of the landslide, a strong shock is possible when it stops, and this poses a great danger to people on the landslide.

After the end of the landslide, mudslide or landslide, people who had previously left the disaster zone and waited out the danger in the nearest safe place, after making sure that there is no repeated threat, should return to this zone to search for and provide assistance to the injured.

1.7 Earthquakes

These are tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface, caused mainly by geophysical reasons.

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