The main elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, raising - lowering the voice, tone of speech, etc.). The constituent elements of intonation

Intonation is associated with a sentence and with a syntagma, intonation is the most important means of dividing a sentence into syntagmas or phrases. Elements of intonation: melody, stress, pause, speech rate and duration of individual syllables, intonation appears in the language as a grammatical and expressive means.

Intonation appears in the language as a grammatical and expressive means. The grammatical function of intonation is determined by the grammatical structure of the sentence. Thanks to intonation, homogeneous members of the sentence, introductory words, introductory sentences are determined, the members of the sentence and enumeration are generalized. With the help of intonation, different types of sentences are distinguished: narrative, interrogative, incentive. Each language is characterized by intonational features inherent in it, which are associated with the structural features of sentences. The grammatical function of intonation is associated with the use of grammatical functions of intonation, it is associated with the use of sound means by all native speakers of a given language. The expressive function of intonation is associated with the sound characteristics of a separately speaking person. There are 2 aspects in each intonation:

Universal (manifested in the fact that in different languages ​​there are certain similarities in the functions of individual components of intonation, and even there is a similarity in intonation structures)

National (characteristic of each language, each language has its own type of intonation).

Positional changes of sounds

Positional changes of consonants can be either at the end or at the beginning of a word. At the end of a word, the consonant may be stunned or the final consonant may fall off. At the beginning of a word, a prosthetic consonant (acute - acute) can be inserted.

Positional changes of vowels: the position of a vowel in a stressed syllable is called a strong position, and in an unstressed syllable it is called a weak position. In a strong position, the vowel is stable, and in a weak position, it undergoes significant changes that are associated with weakening or reduction. Vowel reduction is either quantitative or qualitative. When quantitative, vowels lose part of their longitude, they weaken, but do not change their quality. With a qualitative reduction, not only a weakening of sounds occurs, but also a change in its characteristic features (Russian English is widely represented).

Combinatorial changes in sounds (assimilation, accommodation, diuresis, substitution, dissimilation)

1. Assimilation (assimilation). During assimilation, some, and sometimes all of the pronunciation features of one sound are assimilated to the features of an influencing sound. Assimilation can be complete or partial. With partial change, some signs of sound (coat), and with complete assimilation, all signs of sound change. The sound becomes exactly the same as the sound that caused assimilation.

Assimilation can vary in direction. If the previous sound affects the next one, such assimilation is called progressive. If the subsequent sound affects the previous one, it is regressive.

There can be contact (2 adjacent sounds interact) and distant (separated by sounds).

Assimilation can be in relation to consonants with consonants, in relation to vowels with vowels (typical only for Türkic languages. Vowel endings are likened to the vowel of the root - synharmonism - Tatar language).

Assimilation is the assimilation of sounds of the same type, i.e. can interact acc. with lie., vowel. with vowel.

2. If different types of sounds interact (vowel with acc.), Such a change is called accommodation.

3. Dissimilation - distribution. During dissimilation, one of the 2 sounds similar in articulation loses common features.

On the basis of assimilation or dissimilation, a diereza arises (misalignment of sound; sun, holiday). Sometimes a single syllable can be missed - haplology, sound insertion - epenthesis.

4. Methodology - mutual rearrangement of sounds (in common parlance, when borrowing).

5. Substitution - replacement of the sound of the native language when borrowing a foreign language.

Phonetic and historical sound alternations

Phonetic: due to the norms of the modern language, they are not reflected in the writing (for example, haystack - haystack).

Historical: cannot be explained by the norms of the modern phonetic system and they are always reflected in the letter (s-w, t-h, wear-wear)

The concept of phonemes. Phoneme variants. Basic functions of phonemes. Phoneme positions. Development of the theory of phonemes in linguistics.

1... CONCEPT ABOUT PHONEMES. BACKGROUND OPTIONS

In the process of speech, sounds have different characteristics in their sound. Some of these features do not affect the meaning of words or form, while others affect meaning or form. The sound unit that is used to distinguish between words and word forms is called a phoneme.

The concepts of phoneme and sound do not coincide:

The sounds of speech are something private, separate, and the phoneme is the totality of a whole series of sounds.

The phoneme constitutes a strict system, and the same sound in different words can correspond to different phonemes.

Diphthongs, consisting of two sounds, represent one phoneme.

There are cases when 2 phonemes sound like one sound (for example, child's)

There may be cases when the phoneme is present, but there is no sound (e.g., the sun)

It should be borne in mind that any combination of sounds acts as a single phoneme, that is, a phoneme can be considered the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language. It functions as a whole, even if it consists of two sounds. Each phoneme is a set of essential features that it distinguishes from other phonemes (for example, the sound t - all features represent a single content of the phoneme). Features that distinguish one phoneme from another are called differential.

A phoneme is a minimal unit of the sound structure of a language that serves to fold and distinguish significant units of a language.

This definition makes it possible to establish which sounds are independent phonemes, and which are varieties of the same phoneme. Independent phonemes are sounds that are used in the same position, changing the meaning (ship - sheep). Sounds that are used in the same phonetic conditions do not change the meaning of the word, they are variants of the phoneme. Phoneme variants retain its essential features and have the same phonological content.

2. FUNCTIONS OF THE PHONEME

The phoneme has 2 functions that are associated with the features of the process of verbal communication.

The perceptual function is the perceptual function. Thanks to this function, phonemes are a kind of standards by which we recognize and perceive speech.

Distinctive - significative. In this case, phonemes are differentiators of words and forms of words (tom-house).

The named functions are obligatory in each phoneme, they are interrelated and presuppose the presence of each other in the process of communication.

3. BACKGROUND POSITIONS

The phoneme in live speech falls into different pronunciation conditions - positions. Positions are strong and weak. Strong positions are positions favorable to the phoneme's performance of its functions. In a strong position, a phoneme is opposed to any other phoneme. In a strong position, the phoneme is least of all dependent on phonetic conditions, the significative function is clearly manifested. The phoneme always appears in a strong position in isolation, appears in its basic form. The main type of phoneme is how it is pronounced in isolation. But not in all positions phonemes are capable of performing a significative function. In some positions, they lose this ability, and the phoneme is neutralized. The position in which the phonemes are neutralized is called the weak position. In English, the end of a word is a strong position (white, wide)

4. BACKGROUND SYSTEM

In this system, phonemes are grouped based on their quality: the vowel phoneme system and the consonant phoneme system. The systemic nature of the sound side of the language is manifested in the fact that the number of phonemes is strictly limited. Its constituent units are closely related to each other. Phonemes are grouped because their various features are contrasted. Such groups can cover a different number of phonemic pairs. Opposition of phonemes is called opposition of phonemes. Opposition members can be opposed on one basis (p-b), or several (a-b).

The phoneme system has not remained unchanged throughout the history of a given language. Changes that affect the phoneme system are called phonemic. The most frequent phenomenon of the emergence of new phonemes and the loss of old phonemes, the change of one of the variants of the phoneme into an independent phoneme. Phoneme systems affect loan words. Any borrowed word, being rearranged, changes its outer side under the influence of the system of phonemes of the borrowing language.

DEVELOPMENT OF A BACKGROUND THEORY IN LINGUISTICS

There are 2 directions - the school of traditional doctrine of the phoneme (school of Shcherba, Leningrad and Moscow Phonological School)

The Leningrad school believes that the phoneme is a sound type, and sound types distinguish between words and word forms. There are few sound types in the language, they can be listed by referring to the alphabet, i.e. letters perform the same function as a phoneme, but differ from each other in their material side

There are more sounds in live speech than phonemes. And sounds are combined into types according to acoustic and articulatory proximity. This sound type is a phoneme.

The concept of phoneme and sound is not differentiated by the Moscow school

Sounds are combined into phonemes according to the functions of commonality, if sounds perform the same function, they are the same phoneme, but both schools are united in emphasizing the meaning of phonemes in the general description of the concept of phonemes.

Intonation is a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech: melody (i.e., movement of the main tone), intensity, duration, rate of speech and timbre of pronunciation (indicating the general emotional coloring of speech). Intonation is one of the most important means of formalizing an utterance, revealing its meaning. With the help of intonation, continuous tone movement, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments with further detailing of their semantic relations. Therefore, intonation is often defined as the rhythmic-melodic side of speech, which is a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of an utterance. Intonation includes a whole range of elements, including:

1) the melody of speech: the main component of intonation, it is carried out by raising and lowering the voice in a phrase (compare, for example, the pronunciation of interrogative and declarative sentences), it is the melody of speech that organizes the phrase, dividing it into syntagmas and rhythmic groups, linking its parts;

2) the rhythm of speech: i.e. regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves as the basis for the aesthetic organization of a literary text - poetic and prosaic. The main unit of the rhythm of speech is a rhythmic group consisting of a stressed and adjoining unstressed syllables;

3) the intensity of speech, i.e. the degree of its loudness, the strength or weakness of the utterance (cf. different intensity of speech at a meeting and in a room);

4) the rate of speech, i.e. the speed of pronouncing its elements (sounds, syllables, words), the speed of its course, the duration of sounding in time (for example, by the end of the utterance, the rate of speech slows down, segments containing secondary information are pronounced faster than informatively significant segments that are pronounced at a slow pace );

5) the timbre of speech, i.e. sound coloration of speech, conveying its emotionally expressive shades (for example, intonation of distrust, playful intonation, etc.),

Intonation is an essential feature of a sentence. In the utterance, it performs the following functions: 1) forms the utterance into a single whole (compare the intonation of the completeness and incompleteness of the sentence); 2) distinguishes between the types of statements in terms of their purposefulness (cf. intonation of motivation, question, narration, etc.); 3) conveys syntactic relations between parts of a sentence or sentences (cf. intonation of listing, introductory, explanation, juxtaposition, etc.); 4) expresses emotional coloring (cf. exclamation intonation); 5) reveals the subtext of the statement; 6) characterizes the speaker and the communication situation in general. Within the framework of texts belonging to different styles of language or literary genres, intonation performs emotional, aesthetic and pictorial functions (compare, for example, different intonation coloring of the speech of good and evil characters in fairy tales).

The study of the intonations of individual languages ​​shows that many languages ​​differ in terms of intonation, for example, the intonation in the Lithuanian language has an upward character; in Russian, it can be of several types: descending, ascending, descending-ascending, ascending-descending.

Intonation is a sign not only of a sentence, but also of a syllable, especially in Indo-European and Proto-Slavic languages. In Indo-European languages, in particular, two types of syllable intonations are restored - ascending (acute) and descending (circumflex). These intonations still exist in some languages ​​(for example, in Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian). Their traces have survived in the Russian language in full-voiced combinations. -oro-, -olo-, -pe-(compare, for example, ascending intonation in the word Crow and descending in the word Crow).

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All topics in this section:

The connection between linguistics and the humanities
As a science of human language, linguistics is closely related to social scientific disciplines that are aimed at the study of man and human society, namely: with history,

The connection between linguistics and natural sciences
Linguistics is associated not only with the humanities, but also with natural sciences, namely: with mathematics, which allows you to develop a statistical theory of language, calculate the statistical nature

From the history of linguistics
Linguistics as a science of language originated in ancient times (presumably in the Ancient East, in India, China, Egypt). Conscious learning of the language began with the invention of writing and writing

The essence of language
The history of the science of language testifies to the fact that the question of the essence of language is one of the most difficult in linguistics. It is no coincidence that it has several mutually exclusive solutions: - the language is

Literary and linguistic norm, its codification and distribution
Literary and linguistic norm is a traditionally developed system of rules for the use of linguistic means, which are recognized by society as mandatory. In the minds of the speakers, the norm is peculiar

Prospects for the development of languages ​​in the future
The question of the prospects for the development of languages ​​in the future has several solutions. According to one point of view, the future of languages ​​lies in linguistic unions: the development of languages, according to scientists, will follow their path.

Phonetics
Phonetics (< греч. phönetikos "звуковой") - раздел языкозна­ния, изучающий звуковые единицы языка, их акустические и арти­куляционные свойства, законы, по которым они образуются, пра­

Interaction of sounds in a speech stream
In the flow of speech, the articulation of sounds undergoes changes. Sound modifications can be of two types: 1) combinatorial; 2) positional. Combinatorial changes are phonetic changes

Phoneme as a unit of language
Each language has a huge variety of sounds. But the whole variety of speech sounds can be reduced to a small number of language units (phonemes) participating in the semantic differentiation of words or their forms

Melody.

The main component is melody, that is, the change in pitch throughout the utterance. This component is so important that sometimes it is completely identified with intonation and is called intonation in the narrow sense of the word, for example, they speak of interrogative, exclamatory, affirmative, etc. intonation. In addition, since the voice is a "material carrier" of melodic changes, melody (and intonation in general) is often mistakenly identified with the voice, for example, they speak of "gentle, rough, harsh, etc. intonation", attributing to it the properties that characterize it is the voice.

With all the variety of potential melodic changes for the Russian language, two main types of melody are important: descending and ascending.

Descending melody is characterized by a lowering of the pitch of the voice and is used in declarative and motivating sentences, as well as in interrogative sentences with a question word and some types of exclamation sentences.

Ascending melody is characterized by an increase in pitch and is characteristic of interrogative sentences without an interrogative word (general question), and is also realized in non-finite parts of a common utterance and some exclamation sentences.

Of course, other types of melodic changes are also realized in the sounding phrase, for example, ascending-descending or descending-ascending, segments of speech are also possible, characterized by an even movement of tone.

The main indicators by which the nature of melodic changes in a phrase is assessed are the interval of the tone change, as well as the overall tonal range of the phrase. The interval is the amount of change in tone (up or down). So, a general question is characterized by a large interval of pitching compared to that which occurs in the unfinished parts of the utterance. It is believed that the size of the pitch change interval determines the expressive coloring of the phrase.

Timbre is a specific (oversegment) coloration of speech, which gives it one or another expressive-emotional properties. Timbre is considered as very important, but an additional means of enriching the melody of speech and is organically connected with it, determines it. Each person has his own characteristics of the sound of speech, associated with the structure and operation of his speech apparatus, the nature of the sounds of his voice. By the combination of these signs, even without seeing a person, you can find out what exactly he is saying.

But the coloring of speech can change, deviate from the usual norm, depending on emotions. The stronger the emotions, the more deviations from the usual sound. The expressiveness of speech is communicated by this deviation. “If you are sick, badly tuned, on the contrary, happy and cheerful, - the timbre of your voice will“ tell ”about all this. If you are active in expressing thoughts, if your emotions are not hidden, - again, first of all, the timbre of this will bring this "to the attention" of your interlocutor. " The reasons for this may be different, depending or not depending on the will of the speaker.

The timbre of the voice as a component of intonation performs mainly an expressive function, imparting emotionality and expressiveness to speech. The intonation timbre is determined by the state of the vocal cords, namely by their configuration and the degree of tension.

Speech rate - the speed of pronouncing speech elements (sounds, syllables, words). In phonetic studies, the duration of sounds is used to characterize the tempo; in practice, they use the indicator of the number of sounds (syllables, words) pronounced per unit of time (second or minute). The physiological regularity of the change in the rate of speech during the utterance is that at the end of the utterance, the tempo, as a rule, is slower than at the beginning. The pace should be medium, long pauses should be avoided - they annoy the audience, especially the well-prepared one. Pauses before and after important places (prepare for the perception of information and urge to think it over). This is not silence, it is an effective element of our speech. A pause can attract attention, increase the emphasis on the desired phrase. Pauses provide an opportunity to think while speaking and to control words. The rate of speech performs important semantic functions. It serves as a means:

• 1. Expressions of the degree of importance of the content (more important content is characterized by a slow pace, and less important - a fast pace);
• 2. Attracting the attention of the listener (by slowing down the pace);
• 3. Facilitate understanding and memorization (a slower pace gives the listener time to understand and remember the perceived content);
• 4. Expressions of the speaker's emotional state (emotional states that activate a person's activity - as a rule, positive emotions - accelerate the pace, and emotional states that reduce activity - negative emotions - slow it down);
• 5. Giving expressiveness to speech (with the help of acceleration or deceleration of the tempo, the speed of events, actions that the speaker is talking about is reflected in speech; similarly in the case when the tempo of speech of other persons is imitated).

The average speech rate is considered to be a speaking rate of approximately 120 words per minute.

Unprepared speakers, not mastering the tempo-rhythm of speech, try to compensate for this lack with loudness, begin to shout, raising the strength of each sentence in comparison with the previous ones: their speech becomes monotonously loud and its quality not only does not improve, but worsens even more.

The tonal range is the difference between the minimum and maximum pitch within the utterance. As we have already said, the value of the tonal range characterizes primarily the voice, however, the use of all the possibilities of the tonal range in speech contributes to an increase in its expressiveness.

If the intervals of pitch change are insignificant or if the speech is characterized by a small tonal range, then the listeners have a feeling of monotony of speech. According to psychologists, a person listening to a monotonous speech turns on protective inhibition of the nervous system, which leads to a distraction of attention and fatigue. Information presented in a monotonous manner is perceived by the audience more meticulously, critically, the strongest arguments are regarded as unconvincing, examples seem inexpressive. A person speaking in such a tone begins to be suspected of indifference to the problem under discussion and to partners.

IMPACT AND ITS KINDS

1. Word stress.

2. Syntagmatic stress.

3. Logical stress.

4. Phrasal stress.

1. Word stress - This is the allocation of a syllable in a word using phonetic means (voice strength, sound length, pitch).

Phonetic types of stress. In the languages ​​of the world, the emphasis on the stressed syllable occurs in different ways:

2) pitch (stressed syllable is highlighted by raising or lowering the tone) = tone, musical( Chinese, Japanese, Swedish);

3) the length of pronunciation (the stressed syllable is lengthened, but not strengthened) = longitudinal, quantitative, quantitative(Modern Greek, Indonesian, Javanese).

In Russian, the stress is quantitative-dynamic (quantitative-force). This means that the stressed syllable in Russian is characterized by a lengthening of the vowel, greater volume, and pronounced with greater strength.

In Russian and English, verbal stress has another important phonetic property: it causes a reduction (weakening) of vowels that are in an unstressed position:

five - n I am so - n I am T a choke; amusement - entertainment, fun

This phenomenon is well represented also in German and Danish, where unstressed vowels are greatly reduced, while in Spanish the reduction is very weak, and in many languages ​​it is not observed at all (compare, for example, in Italian or Georgian).

Structural types. At the place of stress in the word, stress is allocated free and bound.Free stress - this is an unfixed stress that can fall on any syllable of a word (Russian: beets, sorrel, provision). Associated stress is a fixed stress attached to a specific syllable in a word (French - on the last syllable: blinds, protege, in Polish - in the penultimate, in Czech - in the first, in Lezgi - in the second).

In relation to the morphological structure of the word, stress can be mobile and motionless . Movable stress is stress that moves when a word changes (in different word forms): water: units h im.p. water, wine p. water, plural im.p. water. Stationary stress is a constant stress that does not change place when the form of a word changes: book, book, books. In English, the stress is fixed: the place of stress in a word does not change, no matter what affixes are added to the stem.

The word usually has one stress, but sometimes (as a rule, in compound words) a second (secondary) stress occurs (for example, four-story, pedagogical institute, extermination - destruction, extermination).

Each significant word has its own stress. Service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, etc.) are devoid of stress. These unstressed service words are called clitics, among which proclitics and enclitics differ. Proclitics are unstressed service words adjacent to the shock ones in front ( along the valleys, along the mountains). Enclitics are unstressed service words adjacent to the percussion words from behind ( would go, well). However, sometimes official words can "pull" the stress on themselves ( NS O water, n a word, but on I am years).

Word stress functions:

1) phonetic unification of the word, ensuring the integrity and separateness of the word by highlighting its intonation center;

2) word-distinguishing (stress serves to distinguish words or forms of a word ( castle - castle, im.p.mn.ch. country- genus.p.ed.h. country);

3) expressive (with the help of stress, stretching the stressed vowel, an emotionally expressive coloration of the word is created: how beautiful).

In some languages, verbal stress is absent (Paleo-Asian - languages ​​of the north of Asia, North America).

2. Syntagmatic impact. Syntagmatic stress is a stronger emphasis on the stressed syllable of the last word in the syntagma ( the weather is terrible). Syntagma (speech tact) is a semantic-syntactic unit of speech formed by a group of words in a sentence. Troekurov's usual occupations / consisted of traveling / near his extensive possessions(three syntagmas).

3. Logical stress - this is the highlighting of one of the words of the sentence to enhance its semantic load (We tonight let's go on an excursion).

4. Phrasal stress - this is the allocation of the most important semantic speech tact (syntagma). Last night(1 syntagma), when the clock struck ten(2 syntagma), I arrived brother (3 syntagma).

INTONATION, ITS ELEMENTS AND FUNCTIONS

Intonation is a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech: melody, intensity, duration, tempo of speech and timbre.

Elements of intonation:

1) melodic speech - the main component of intonation, raising - lowering the voice in a phrase (compare, pronunciation of interrogative and declarative sentences);

2) rhythm speech - regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves to organize poetic and prose texts;

3) volume speech - the strength or weakness of the utterance (cf. different intensity of speech at a meeting and in a room);

4) pace speech - the speed of pronunciation (sounds, syllables, words), the speed of speech flow, the duration of the sound of speech in time (for example, by the end of the utterance, the rate of speech slows down,
segments containing secondary information are pronounced quickly, informatively significant segments are pronounced in slow motion);

5) timbre speech - the sound coloration of speech, conveying its emotionally expressive shades (for example, intonation of distrust, playful intonation, etc.).

Intonation functions.

1) A means of formulating an utterance, revealing its meaning. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments (cf. intonation of completeness and incompleteness of a sentence).

2) Distinguishes the types of statements by purposefulness (cf. intonation of motivation, question, narration, etc.).

3) Conveys syntactic relations between parts of a sentence or sentences (cf. intonation of listing, explanation, comparison).

4) Expresses emotional coloring (cf. exclamation intonation, non-exclamation).

5) Reveals the subtext of the statement (a special meaning that does not follow from the meanings of words).

6) Characterizes the speaker and the communication situation in general (emotionally neutral, raised tone, mystery, secrecy, importance, intimacy).

In this section, we will consider the classification of intonation elements, the characteristics of intense intonation elements (pause, logical stress, intensity), frequency (melody, range pitch), temporal (tempo, emphatic longitude), spectral (intonation timbre), consider the role, universality and meaning each element of intonation in teaching correct intonation, we will reveal the concept of speech rhythm.

Elements of intonation:

The physical structure of an intonation construction is made up of intonation elements. The following groups are distinguished:

Group 1 - intensive elements: intonation pause, logical stress, intonation intensity;

Group 2 - frequency elements: melody and range pitch;

Group 3 - temporal (temporal) elements: tempo and emphatic longitude;

Group 4 - spectral element: intonation timbre.

Group 1 - intensive elements: intonation pause, logical stress, intonation intensity.

A pause is a break in speech. It acts as a means of dividing speech, a means of expressing the nature of a connection (together with melody), a means of semantic and emotional emphasis (LES, 1990, p. 369) (or: A pause means two phenomena: first, a greater or lesser break in sound, which is the border between two more or less meaningful segments of speech; secondly, a change in tone on the border of syntagmatic division).

When applied correctly, a pause is always desirable. It is useful in every way and is easy to make. It makes breathing easier, makes it possible to figure out which thoughts should go next. The very rhythm of speech largely depends on the intervals and duration of the pauses. The rhythm of speech requires not monotony in the length of pauses, but a pleasant expressive variety of pause. It is necessary to feel the rhythm that corresponds to the content of the speech, and try to determine where it is necessary to accelerate the pace, where to slow down, where to make a short pause, and where to stop before the decisive word or phrase in order to create the desired impression.

K.S. Stanislavsky describes three types of pauses: logical, psychological, and backlash.

A logical pause helps to clarify the idea of ​​the text. A psychological pause gives life to this thought, phrase, trying to convey its subtext. If speech is illiterate without a logical pause, then without a psychological pause it is lifeless. Logical pauses are connecting and separating. The shortest connecting pause is the backlash (air pause, the shortest pause required to take a breath). A connecting pause between speech bars is indicated by one vertical bar (|), a longer pause between speech bars or sentences is indicated by two bars (||), a dividing logical pause, which denotes the boundaries of sentences, semantic and plot compositional pieces, is indicated by three vertical bars (| ||).

Analysis of logical pauses includes a description of their duration, as well as completeness or incompleteness, more precisely, the degree of their completeness. The degree of pause duration and the degree of its perceptibility are not always directly related. Sometimes, physically, a short pause is quite noticeable, especially in those cases when the pause is at the junction of contrasting tones, tempos, and rhythms.

G.I. Ivanova-Lukyanova identifies five types of pauses according to the place of use:

1. Grammatical, arising in the place of syntagmatic division and realized by a change in tone and a break in sound; has a normative character, as it corresponds to the syntactic structure of speech.

2. Grammatical, created only by changing the tone without a real break in the sound. These pauses are characteristic of two styles of speech: official-business and journalistic.

3. Non-grammatical, that is, representing a real stop in places not intended for pauses. The reason for this phenomenon lies in the unpreparedness of the statement, which is characteristic of colloquial speech.

4. Psychological, with emotional content.

5. Absence of pauses in places where the syntactic structure of the text provides for a mandatory division boundary. "Missed" pauses are common in colloquial speech, are present in dialogue, depend on all sorts of cliches and clichés.

According to the acoustic expression, the pause can be real and imaginary (zero).

An actual pause is a stop, a break in the sound. These are the pauses that delimit statements in oral speech, the pauses indicated in the written text (for example, punctuation) at the boundaries of paragraphs and sentences, in the place of a dash, comma or semicolon, as well as in front of most unions and at the boundaries of poetic lines.

With imaginary pauses, there is no break in the sound, but there are changes in the tonal contour - "a break in the melody" or "an end to the fall in tone and the beginning of a new rise", a change in tempo or a junction (neighborhood) of semantic stress. By ear, such features of intonation are perceived as a pause between syntagmas.

Graphic symbols for pauses:

Connecting pause between speech measures - /

Longer pause (more often between sentences) - //

Separating logical pause (boundaries of semantic, plot segments) - ///.

In his teaching on the art of stage speech, K.S. Stanislavsky special

attention is paid to stress, or as he says, "accentuation". An stress that has fallen into the wrong place distorts the meaning, cripples the phrase, while on the contrary, it should help to create it!

Logical stress is an arbitrary highlighting of one of the elements of an utterance in order to increase its semantic weight.

The emphasis is based on the intensity, the strength of the sound. For the intonation of speech, verbal stress (the power and tonal vertex of the word through which the intonation movement of a phrase is carried out) and semantic stress (syntagmatic, phrasal and logical) are fundamentally significant.

The physiological mechanisms involved in the implementation of logical stresses are the respiratory system, the larynx, and peripheral articulators. The observed coordinated changes in their activities should presuppose strict coordination of control signals. Since the meaning of the statement depends on the formulation of logical stress, the general mechanisms for controlling logical stress should be attributed to rather high levels of speech program synthesis.

Logical stress is the support of thought, as KS said. Stanislavsky is the "index finger" that highlights the main word in a phrase or a group of words in a sentence. Logical accents are placed depending on the purpose of the statement, on the main idea of ​​the whole topic and the group of words. Logical stress is most often achieved by raising or lowering the tone - tonal stress. Sometimes a word or a group of words in a sentence is highlighted with logical pauses before the highlighted word, after it, or two pauses: before and after the highlighted word.

Stress (verbal and logical) has three dimensions: strength, height, longitude. The degree of each of the components should be taken into account and which of them is dominant in each particular case.

The purpose of stress is to highlight the words that are most important for conveying thoughts, expressing the essence of what is being said in a sentence or in the whole passage.

There are the following types of stress: bar, phrasal I, phrasal II. Bar stress is stress on a word within a speech bar. Phrasal stress I is the highlighting of the main speech tact in a sentence. When, with the help of phrasal stress, a whole phrase in a passage is highlighted, such stress is called phrasal stress II.

Along with the concept of phrasal stress, many studies also use the concept of syntagmatic stress, sometimes without differences in the volume of concepts, and in other cases - with a clear opposition. The latter can be considered a further development of the provisions of L.V. Shcherba, since the idea of ​​the existence of speech units of different dimensions (rhythmic group is a union of rhythmic groups, or syntagma, is a union of syntagmas, or a phrase) also requires appropriate terms to reflect the most important means of combining these units (rhythmic stress - syntagmatic stress - phrasal stress).

Linguists consider bar and phrasal stress as a necessary element of an isolated, complete sentence, emphasizing their constant position and stable melodic pattern.

Logical stress is not required in a complete isolated sentence, it may be absent or coincide with the phrasal one, and its functions and means of embodiment are strictly limited. We are talking about a linguistic model, general features of a structure that does not express all processes that are essential for living speech.

Intonation, as well as phrasal stress L.V. Shcherba refers to external exponents of grammatical categories, along with prefixes, suffixes, endings, word order, special auxiliary words, syntactic connection, etc.

According to the rules of the language, stress in an isolated sentence takes on a certain word or phrase and theoretically can be expressed by strengthening the stressed syllable. "I was returning home by FIELDS." This stress can fall on the word "fields" in the process of speech action, and not only because "fields" is a phrasal stress, or because it is an addition, but primarily because "fields" are "new", with what the perspective of the story is connected.

The intensity, the power of the pronunciation is determined by the sound energy. This element of intonation is often equated with loudness, but intensity does not only indicate loudness. The intensity is expressed in the whisper too. When we whisper some words, we can put maximum energy into them.

The strength of the voice is very important to the speaker. If he speaks very softly, then only people nearby can hear him. An excessively loud, and especially loud voice causes irritation, rejection of what is said, and the effect of the speech is significantly reduced. Sometimes the volume of a voice depends on how well the speaker perceives the pitch of his voice.

The intensity depends on the voltage and amplitude of the vibration of the vocal cords. The larger the vibration amplitude, the more intense the sound. The intensity level is determined by ear. It comes in low, medium and high. The level of sounding power may not change (even, calm voice), but most often the direction and nature of the intensity change: increase or decrease, and this can be abrupt or smooth. The interaction of tone and intensity increases the loudness of speech.

Intensive elements also include accentuation - active for perception, the selection of a word in a phrase by prosodic means.

The characteristic features of such a selection:

1) it sharply distinguishes the word in comparison with its neighbors in the statement;

2) creates a communicative-textual aura around the utterance in which it enters, bringing the content of the utterance beyond its framework.

Group 2 - frequency elements: melody and range pitch.

Melody is understood as modulation of pitch (intonation) tone when pronouncing a phrase, carried out by varying degrees of tension of the vocal cords (Akhmanova O.S.).

Melody of speech is the main component of intonation. The acoustic correlate of the melody of speech is the change in the frequency of the fundamental tone that unfolds in time. She organizes the phrase by dismembering its parts; distinguishes between communicative types of utterance; highlights the most important section of the statement; serves to express emotions, modal shades, irony, subtext.

With the help of intonation, we create a general melodic structure of speech, similar to the sound of songs; only the pitch change is faster and at a lower level. As soon as children begin to speak, they distinguish many common intonations.

The pitch of the voice is controlled not only by the tension of the vocal folds, but also by the frequency of impulses received from the brain. A whispering voice is formed without the participation of the vocal folds and is obtained due to the friction of the expiratory and inhalation air jets against the walls of the larynx, pharynx, mouth and nose cavities.

To learn the correct intonation, to correct intonation errors, it is necessary to have a sufficiently accurate description of the intonation of the type of sentence being studied. Of all the acoustic correlates of intonation, melodic is the most universal, meaningful, and best understood medium. Awareness of melody is especially necessary when teaching intonation to correct phonological and phonetic (accent) intonation errors.

The recognition of the type of sentence is influenced not only by melodic, but also by other components of intonation - duration, intensity. But the experience of teaching Russian intonation suggests that teaching the correct melody, that is, the component with the greatest information content, simultaneously leads to some normalization of other intonation components closely related to it, to a certain extent conditioned by it.

Range Pitch - The pitch of the main tone of the utterance in relation to the range of the voice. The assignment of the range pitch to the elements of intonation is carried out because a segment of speech can be pronounced in one or another (middle, upper, lower) height, or, as it is also called, a band, and this is associated with the emotional, volitional content of the utterance. The data available in the literature on the ability of the human ear to differentiate tones indicate a fairly good sensitivity of our hearing aid to frequency changes. As a rule, depicting something with speech means (an animal, another person, etc.), we change exactly the range of the pitch of our voice.

Group 3 - temporal (temporal) elements: tempo and emphatic longitude.

The concept of tempo includes: the speed of speech in general, the duration of the sound of individual words, intervals and duration of pauses. The more important the content, the more restrained the speech; the exception is fast speech in tense or emotional positions.

Tempo is the rate at which speech flows. The tempo is important in contrasting the important and the unimportant, in characterizing the sounding texts of different styles, for example: the tempo of the information message is accelerated, and the tempo of the tale is measured, often slowed down. Slowing down the tempo towards the end of the utterance serves as a means of creating its intonational integrity, giving special significance to what is being communicated here, and vice versa, the secondary importance of what is communicated is expressed by accelerating the pronunciation of some phrases. However, the pronunciation does not lose its correctness and intelligibility. The normal rate of speech is that at which from 9 to 14 phonemes are pronounced in one second.

The average speech rate is 110-120 words per minute. This pace is optimal for the teacher's speech, it allows students to concentrate and not be distracted. A slow pace on all words for even 2-3 minutes scatters attention. An accelerated pace has the same effect: students do not have time to comprehend what has been said and lose interest in the material.

The pace slows down if: something important is highlighted, attention is drawn, something slow is depicted; on important words, on unfamiliar words, on new terms. Slowing down the tempo has a variety - verbal pronunciation. This technique is used when introducing new terms, to highlight words and phrases of particular importance.

The pace is accelerated if: less important information is given, well-known information is given, something fast is depicted; accelerates in words - without the main semantic load, reproducing the known.

Emphatic longitude (emphasis) is an increased duration of one or, more rarely, several sounds in a word. The effect of emphatic longitude is created by exceeding the sound duration expected at a given speech rate for a given average duration of sounds in a speech segment (syntagma). Emphatic longitude is one of the means of creating emotionally and expressively rich speech. Emphatic longitude can be accompanied by a change in the range of the pitch of the pronunciation of a sound (increase or decrease) - and this serves as a vivid means of creating an image in speech. (My cat's name is Murka, but I call her Murochka. - Pronunciation of an extended sound in the word "Murochka" in the upper range speaks of a kind, warm attitude towards the cat, in the lower range - about the opposite attitude.)

Emphasis - an increase in the duration of the stressed syllable in a word.

In teacher speech, emphatic longitude is usually used to emphasize and highlight semantic concepts.

Group 4 - spectral element: intonation timbre.

Timbre - the color, or character of the sound of a voice. In the dictionary of O.S. Akhmanova gives an interpretation to two terms: timbre I and timbre II. Timbre II is related to the intonation component. "Specific super-segmental coloring of speech, which gives it those or other expressive-emotional properties" (Akhmanova OS). Distinguish

individual timbre and intonation timbre. Each person has a naturally-given timbre of voice, which is why we distinguish the voices of people. This timbre is not an element of intonation. Natural, individual timbre depends exclusively on the anatomical structure of the speech apparatus. The intonation timbre (as a component of intonation) is generated by an arbitrary change in the shape of some resonators in this apparatus and is created by the interaction of range pitch and intensity. Timbre is involved in the expression of emotions, its semantic function is observed when depicting the properties of some objects and phenomena of reality. Timbre coloration of speech can increase or decrease the effect of speech in general. Timbre coloration is one of the leading parameters that are assessed by listeners during the initial perception of sounding speech. It evokes a certain reaction in the audience: if the timbre reflects negative emotions, then, accordingly, a negative reaction. (Some studies of teachers' speech state a far from rosy picture: negative emotions prevail in the intonation of pedagogical speech, therefore, it is important for a future teacher to pay attention to the individual timbre of his voice and the ability to skillfully change timbre depending on the communication situation.)

Each sound has a characteristic coloration, or timbre. It is determined by the density, shape and size of the body brought into a state of vibration, and the characteristics of the environment in which it vibrates. Even the slightest difference in the structure and shape of vibrating bodies is so significant that in the whole world there are no two human voices that sound exactly the same.

Timbre is an additional articulatory-acoustic coloration of a voice, its coloring. In the oral cavity, as a result of more or less tension of the speech organs and changes in the volume of the resonator, overtones are formed, that is, additional tones that give the main tone a special shade, a special color. Therefore, the timbre is also called the "color" of the voice.

The nature of the timbre is so varied, and its perception is subjective, that in describing the characteristics of the timbre, a variety of definitions are used, emphasizing: visual perception (light, dull, brilliant); auditory (deaf, vibrating, ringing, creaking); tactile (soft, cold, hard); associative (velvet, copper, metal); emotional (cheerful, joyful, enthusiastic, gentle).

Timbre and rhythm are characteristics that are incredibly complex in the prosodic analysis of sounding speech and require special study. There is still no satisfactory and reliable unit for describing timbre and rhythm. But the function of timbre and rhythm must be considered.

Intonation is closely related to the meaning, syntactic structure and rhythm of speech.

Rhythm is a uniform, regular alternation of commensurate and sensually perceptible elements (sound, speech, etc.).

The rhythm of speech is a uniform alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, different in duration in the strength of the voice. If the rhythm is considered as a temporary structure of any perceived processes, formed by accents, pauses, division into segments, their grouping, ratios in duration, etc., then the rhythm of speech is pronounced and audible accentuation and division, which do not always coincide with semantic division. graphically expressed punctuation marks and spaces between words.

In physiology, poetry, linguistics and psycholinguistics, it is customary to talk about the rhythm of speech.

The speech rhythm has a physiological and intellectual basis. As an element of sound, speech rhythm is based on the rhythm of breathing. As an element of the form of speech (performs a communicative function), the rhythm is correlated with the meaning.