Lethal dose of radiation for humans in rads. Permissible radiation dose for humans

Radiation doses for humans

Radiation radiation.

Radiation is the physical process of emission and propagation under certain conditions in matter or vacuum of particles and electromagnetic waves. There are two types of radiation - ionizing and non-ionizing. The second includes thermal radiation, ultraviolet and visible light, and radio radiation. Ionizing radiation occurs when, under the influence of high energy, electrons are separated from an atom and form ions. When we talk about radioactive exposure, we are usually talking about ionizing radiation. Now we will talk about this type radiation.

Ionizing radiation. Radioactive substances released into the environment are called radiation pollution. It is mainly associated with releases of radioactive waste as a result of accidents at nuclear power plants (NPPs), during the production of nuclear weapons, etc.

Exposure dose measurement

Radiation cannot be seen, therefore, to determine the presence of radiation, they use special measuring instruments - a dosimeter based on a Geiger counter.
The dosimeter is a gas-filled capacitor, which breaks through when an ionizing particle passes through a volume of gas.
The number of radioactive particles is read, the number of these particles is displayed on the screen in different units, most often as the amount of radiation for a certain period of time, for example, per hour.

The effect of radiation on human health

Radiation is harmful to all living organisms; it destroys and disrupts the structure of DNA molecules. Radiation causes birth defects and miscarriages, cancer, and too high a dose of radiation leads to acute or chronic radiation sickness, as well as death. Radiation - that is, ionizing radiation - transmits energy.

The unit of measurement for radioactivity is becquerel (1 becquerel - 1 decay per second) or cpm (1 cpm - decay per minute).
The measure of the ionization effect of radioactive radiation on a person is measured in roentgens (R) or sieverts (Sv), 1 Sv = 100 R = 100 rem (rem is the biological equivalent of a roentgen). There are 1000 millisieverts (mSv) in one sievert.

For clarity and example:
1 roentgen = 1000 milliroentgen. (80 milliroentgen = 0.08 roentgen)
1 milliroentgen = 1000 microroentgen. (80 microroentgen = 0.08 milliroentgen)
1 microroentgen = 0.000001 roentgen. (80 roentgen = 80,000,000 microroentgen)
80 Sv = 80000 mSv = 8000 R
0.18 μSv/h = 18 μR/h
80mR = 800 μZ.

Let's take as an example the calculation (milli roentgens - roentgens per hour) #1:
1. 80 mR per hour = 0.08 Roentgen
2. 100,000 mR = 100 Roentgen (The first signs of radiation sickness, according to statistics, 10% of people who receive such a dose of radiation die after 30 days. Vomiting may occur, symptoms appear after 3-6 hours after the dose and can remain up to one day. 10 -14 days there is a latent phase, the state of health worsens, anorexia and fatigue begin. The immune system is damaged, the risk of infection increases. Men are temporarily infertile. Premature birth or loss of the child occurs.)
3. 100/0.08 = 1250 hours/24 = 52 days, being in a contaminated room or place is required for the first signs of radiation sickness to appear.

Let's take as an example the calculation (micro sievert - micro roentgen per hour) #2:
1. 1 micro sievert (µSv, µSv) - 100 micro roentgens.
2. Standard 0.20 µSv (20 µR/h)
The sanitary standard almost all over the world is up to 0.30 µ3V (30 µR/h)
That is, 60 microroentgen = 0.00006 roentgen.
3. Or 1 roentgen = 0.01 sievert
100 roentgens = 1 sievert.

As an example
11.68 μS/h = 1168 micro-Roentgen/h = 1.168 milliroentgen.
1000 µR (1mR) = 10.0 µSv = 0.001 Roentgen.
0.30 µSv = 30 µR = 0.00003 Roentgen.

CLINICAL CONSEQUENCES OF ACUTE (SHORT-TERM) GAMMA IRRADIATION UNIFORMLY OVER THE WHOLE HUMAN BODY

The original table also includes the following doses and their effects:

- 300–500 R- infertility for life. It is now generally accepted that at a dose 350 R in men there is a temporary absence of sperm in the semen. Sperm disappear completely and forever only with a dose 550 R i.e. in severe forms of radiation sickness;

- 300–500 R local irradiation of the skin, hair loss, skin redness or peeling off;

- 200 R decrease in the number of lymphocytes for a long time (the first 2–3 weeks after irradiation).

- 600-1000 R a lethal dose, it is impossible to cure, you can only prolong life for several years with severe symptoms. Almost complete destruction of the bone marrow occurs, requiring transplantation. Serious damage to the digestive tract.

- 10-80 Sv (10000-80000 mSv, 1000-5000 R). Coma, death. Death occurs within 5-30 minutes.

- More than 80 Sv (80000 mSv, 8000 R). Immediate death.

Millisieverts of nuclear scientists and liquidators

50 millisieverts is the annual maximum permissible radiation dose for operators at nuclear facilities.
250 millisieverts- this is the maximum permissible emergency dose of radiation for professional liquidators. Treatment is needed.
300 mSv— the first signs of radiation sickness.
4000 mSv— radiation sickness with a probability of death, i.e. of death.
6000 mSv- death within a few days.

1 millisievert (mSv) = 1000 microsieverts (µSv).
1 mSv is one thousandth of a sievert (0.001 Sv).

Radioactivity: alpha, beta, gamma radiation

Atoms of matter consist of a nucleus and electrons rotating around it. The core is a stable formation that is difficult to destroy. But, the nuclei of atoms of some substances are unstable and can radiate energy and particles into space.

This radiation is called radioactive, and it includes several components, which are named according to the first three letters of the Greek alphabet: α-, β- and γ- radiation. (alpha, beta and gamma radiation). These radiations are different, and their effect on humans and measures to protect against it are different.

Alpha radiation

Flow of heavy positively charged particles. Occurs as a result of the decay of atoms of heavy elements such as uranium, radium and thorium. In air, alpha radiation travels no more than 5 cm and, as a rule, is completely blocked by a sheet of paper or the outer layer of skin. If a substance that emits alpha particles enters the body through food or air, it irradiates internal organs and becomes dangerous.

Beta radiation

Electrons, which are much smaller than alpha particles and can penetrate several centimeters deep into the body. You can protect yourself from it with a thin sheet of metal, window glass, and even ordinary clothing. When beta radiation reaches unprotected areas of the body, it usually affects the upper layers of the skin. During the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in April 1986, firefighters suffered skin burns as a result of very strong exposure to beta particles. If a substance that emits beta particles enters the body, it will irradiate the inside of a person.

Gamma radiation

Photons, i.e. electromagnetic wave carrying energy. It can travel long distances in the air, gradually losing energy as a result of collisions with atoms in the environment. Intense gamma radiation, if not protected from it, can damage not only the skin, but also internal organs. Thick layers of iron, concrete and lead, are excellent barriers to gamma radiation.

As you can see, according to its characteristics, alpha radiation is practically not dangerous if you do not inhale its particles or eat them with food. Beta radiation can cause skin burns due to exposure. Gamma radiation has the most dangerous properties. It penetrates deep into the body, and it is very difficult to remove it from there, and the effects are very destructive.

Without special instruments, it is impossible to know what type of radiation is present in a given case, especially since you can always accidentally inhale radiation particles in the air.

Therefore, there is only one general rule - avoid such places.

For reference and general information:
You are flying in an airplane at an altitude of 10 km, where the background is about 200-250 microroentgens/hour. It’s not difficult to calculate what the dose will be for a two-hour flight.

The main long-lived radionuclides that caused contamination from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant are:
Strontium-90 (Half-life ~28 years)
Cesium-137 (Half-life ~31 years)
Americium-241 (Half-life ~430 years)
Plutonium-239 (Half-life - 24120 years)
Other radioactive elements (including the isotopes Iodine-131, Cobalt-60, Cesium-134) have now almost completely decayed due to their relatively short half-lives and do not affect the radioactive contamination of the area.

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Despite the emergence of a huge number of new modern diagnostic methods, X-ray examination is still widely popular. Over time, x-rays have become more advanced, safer for humans and more informative for making a diagnosis. But all these attempts to make the study completely safe were unsuccessful. The fact is that the radiation dose from an X-ray of any human organ can add up and exceed permissible standards.

What is X-ray radiation?

To understand whether it is dangerous for a person to have an x-ray, you need to know what it is. X-ray radiation is a directed stream of electromagnetic waves with a certain length, which lies in the gap between the radiation of ultraviolet and gamma particles. Each wave has its own specific effect on all human organs.
By its nature, X-rays are ionizing rays. These types of radiation can easily penetrate any part of the human body. But this is dangerous for humans. Depending on the dose received, the harm to the subjects is different: the higher the dose, the worse the health.

Features of radiation research in medicine

X-ray radiation ranks honorably second among all methods of human irradiation, after natural radiation. But compared to the latter, the radiation used in x-ray diagnostics is much more dangerous due to the following reasons:

• X-ray radiation exceeds the power of natural radiation sources.
• For diagnostic purposes, a person weakened by the disease is irradiated, which increases the harm to health from X-rays.
• Medical radiation has an uneven distribution throughout the body.
• Organs may be x-rayed several times.

However, unlike radiation of natural origin, which is difficult to prevent, x-ray diagnostics have long included various methods of protection against the harmful effects of radiation on humans. More on this a little later.

Why are x-rays dangerous?

Every person who has encountered x-rays has heard about its dangers. When the rays pass through human tissue, the atoms and molecules of the cells are ionized. Because of this, their structure changes irreversibly.
Each cell reacts differently to radiation, so some tissues and organs undergo pathology immediately after contact with radiation, while others require a slightly higher dose or longer exposure. The hematopoietic organs most susceptible to the effects of X-rays are the red bone marrow. This is the least dangerous for the nervous system. It all depends on the ability of cells to divide.
After exposure to radiation, either the person himself (radiation sickness, somatic disorders, infertility) or his descendants (genetic mutations and pathologies) can become ill.
A person who has been exposed to radiation first feels flu-like symptoms: nausea, weakness, unobtrusive muscle pain, dizziness. The first changes appear in a general blood test.

Each organ and tissue reacts differently to radiation.

Initial symptoms in humans:

• reversible change in the composition of blood elements after minor irradiation;
• leukemia (decrease in the number of leukocytes) from the first day of radiation exposure, as a result of which immunity decreases and a person becomes vulnerable to various diseases;
• lymphocytosis (increased lymphocyte content) against the background of leukemia is one of the main signs by which X-ray exposure can be suspected;
• thrombocytopenia (reduction of platelets in the blood volume), which can lead to bruising, bleeding and aggravate the process;
• erythrocytopenia (decrease in the number of red blood cells) as well as their breakdown, which leads to hypoxia of all tissues of the body.

Long-term consequences:

• development of malignant processes;
• infertility;
• premature aging;
• development of cataracts.

All these symptoms and pathological conditions occur only if the X-ray radiation was very intense and the contact with a person was very long. Modern medical X-ray machines can record the necessary changes in the examined organ with a minimal dose of radiation. It follows from this that the procedure is relatively harmless, even if the study has to be done many times.

Blood pathologies are the most common complication that appears after irradiation.

Which examination is the most dangerous?

Those who do not understand X-rays think that all studies have the same effect on the body. But not all equipment whose operating principle is based on radiation affects with the same force. To compare the radiation of different types of x-ray diagnostics, it is worth using the average effective doses. Here is a table of the effects of fluorography, radiography, fluoroscopy and computed tomography on different organs and parts of the body in doses per one procedure. With its help you can find out which examination is the most dangerous.

Obviously, CT and fluoroscopy provide the highest radiation exposure. Fluoroscopy lasts several minutes, in contrast to the short duration of other methods, which explains the high radiation exposure. For CT scans, the radiation dose depends on the number of images. Even greater radiation exposure is observed during scintigraphy, in which radioactive substances are introduced into the body.

Permissible radiation dose

How many times a year should you do an X-ray examination so as not to harm your health? On the one hand, all these methods are completely harmless. But for some reason they are prohibited from being used on pregnant women and children. Let's try to figure it out.
Radiation exposure is believed to depend on X-ray room attendance. But in fact, you need to focus on the radiation dose. Each study has its own permissible radiation dose.

• Fluorography, mammography - 0.8 mSv
• Dental X-ray - 0.15-0.35 mSv (a digital device gives an order of magnitude less radiation).
• X-ray (RG/RTG) of the chest organs - 0.15-0.40 mSv.

According to the documents of the Ministry of Health, a person should not receive more than 15 mSv per year. For radiologists, this dose increases to 20 mSv.

The rays themselves do not accumulate and do not form radioactive substances.

Dangerous dose of radiation

Permissible doses should not be harmful to health. Doses higher than normal can provoke somatic pathologies. A load of more than 3 Sv causes radiation sickness.
It is important to know that a person is exposed to more radiation if they take an x-ray at the height of their illness.
It is worth noting that ionizing radiation is used not only for diagnostic purposes in medicine. It is quite popular in treatment, especially for tumor diseases of the blood. Radiation therapy exposes the human body to radiation with a load that cannot be matched by any x-ray research method.

How to remove radiation after an x-ray

With a single x-ray irradiation, the patient receives a dose that can cause malignancy in 0.001%. It is unlikely that such a small dose will cause symptoms of radiation sickness or other pathological conditions. In addition, the rays of the X-ray machine cease their effect immediately after the procedure is terminated. They cannot accumulate in the body or form independent sources of radiation. Therefore, preventive measures are impractical and there is no point in removing radiation after an x-ray.
But, unfortunately, a person can be exposed to radioactive substances from other sources. In addition, X-ray machines can malfunction, causing danger.

The allowed safe dose received by a person over 70 years of life is up to 70 mSv.

How to reduce the harmful effects of x-rays

Modern X-ray machines are much safer than the equipment that was used a couple of years ago. But it won’t hurt to protect yourself. There are several such recommendations:

• Choose a method with the least radiation exposure.
• Do not carry out the procedure without justified indications.
• If possible, replace the x-ray with a study without radiation exposure.
• Do not conduct examinations during the height of illness.
• Apply individual protective factors (aprons, aprons, etc.).

Are there any benefits from radiation?

As you know, contact with radiation is dangerous to health. But since people are exposed to ionizing radiation in the external environment (the sun, the depths of the earth), and they remain relatively healthy, it can be assumed that radiation also has its advantages.

• Without radiation, cells divide slower and the body ages.
• Small doses can even have a therapeutic effect and a general strengthening effect.

X-ray for children and pregnant women

The question is always relevant: is it dangerous for children and pregnant women to have x-rays? Since cells that are constantly dividing are primarily exposed to irradiation, and the child’s body is in the process of active growth, this study is prohibited for children.
If we are talking about radiation therapy or justified research, an exception can be made. In this case, choose the method with the lowest radiation exposure. Preventive X-ray methods for children under 14 years of age are strictly prohibited, because they can cause irreparable harm.
As for pregnant women, they are prescribed this study only in extreme cases. Neither women nor children should be allowed into the examination without protective clothing. Diagnostic studies related to radiation exposure must be recorded taking into account dose loads.

Nursing mothers are also interested in whether it is possible to take x-rays during lactation? Will this affect the quality of breast milk? In this case, there is no need to worry, X-ray diagnostics affects them in the same way as it does on ordinary adults.

Conclusion

Eliminating or limiting the influence of natural radiation sources is not easy. But in medicine this is much easier to do, because the doses of radiation in X-ray diagnostics are minimal. But you still shouldn’t neglect protective measures. Ionizing radiation with unreasonably frequent and prolonged contact can harm human health. Strict adherence to all recommendations related to x-ray diagnostics reduces the radiation dose to the patient.

Of all the radiation diagnostic methods, only three: x-rays (including fluorography), scintigraphy and computed tomography, are potentially associated with dangerous radiation - ionizing radiation. X-rays are capable of splitting molecules into their component parts, so their action can destroy the membranes of living cells, as well as damage the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Thus, the harmful effects of hard X-ray radiation are associated with cell destruction and death, as well as damage to the genetic code and mutations. In ordinary cells, mutations over time can cause cancerous degeneration, and in germ cells they increase the likelihood of deformities in the future generation.

The harmful effects of such types of diagnostics as MRI and ultrasound have not been proven. Magnetic resonance imaging is based on the emission of electromagnetic waves, and ultrasound studies are based on the emission of mechanical vibrations. Neither is associated with ionizing radiation.

Ionizing radiation is especially dangerous for body tissues that are intensively renewed or growing. Therefore, the first people to suffer from radiation are:

• bone marrow, where the formation of immune cells and blood occurs,
• skin and mucous membranes, including the gastrointestinal tract,
• fetal tissue in a pregnant woman.

Children of all ages are especially sensitive to radiation, since their metabolic rate and cell division rate are much higher than those of adults. Children are constantly growing, which makes them vulnerable to radiation.

At the same time, X-ray diagnostic methods: fluorography, radiography, fluoroscopy, scintigraphy and computed tomography are widely used in medicine. Some of us expose ourselves to the rays of an X-ray machine on our own initiative: so as not to miss something important and to detect an invisible disease at a very early stage. But most often the doctor sends you for radiation diagnostics. For example, you come to the clinic to get a referral for a wellness massage or a certificate for the pool, and the therapist sends you for fluorography. The question is, why this risk? Is it possible to somehow measure the “harmfulness” of X-rays and compare it with the need for such research?

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Accounting for radiation doses

By law, every diagnostic test involving x-ray exposure must be recorded on a dose recording sheet, which is filled out by a radiologist and pasted into your outpatient record. If you are examined in a hospital, then the doctor should transfer these figures to the extract.

In practice, few people comply with this law. At best, you will be able to find the dose you were exposed to in the study report. At worst, you will never know how much energy you received with invisible rays. However, you have every right to demand from the radiologist information about how much the “effective dose of radiation” was - this is the name of the indicator by which harm from x-rays is assessed. The effective radiation dose is measured in milli- or microsieverts - abbreviated as mSv or µSv.

Previously, radiation doses were estimated using special tables that contained average figures. Now every modern X-ray machine or computed tomograph has a built-in dosimeter, which immediately after the examination shows the number of sieverts you received.

The radiation dose depends on many factors: the area of ​​the body that was irradiated, the hardness of the X-rays, the distance to the beam tube and, finally, the technical characteristics of the apparatus itself on which the study was carried out. The effective dose received when examining the same area of ​​the body, for example, the chest, can change by a factor of two or more, so after the fact it will only be possible to calculate how much radiation you received. It’s better to find out right away without leaving your office.

Which examination is the most dangerous?

To compare the “harmfulness” of various types of x-ray diagnostics, you can use the average effective doses given in the table. This is data from methodological recommendations No. 0100/1659-07-26, approved by Rospotrebnadzor in 2007. Every year the technology is improved and the dose load during research can be gradually reduced. Perhaps in clinics equipped with the latest devices, you will receive a lower dose of radiation.

Part of the body, organ	Dose mSv/procedure
	film	digital
Fluorograms
Rib cage	0,5	0,05
Limbs	0,01	0,01
Cervical spine	0,3	0,03
Thoracic spine	0,4	0,04
	1,0	0,1
Pelvic organs, hip	2,5	0,3
Ribs and sternum	1,3	0,1
Radiographs
Rib cage	0,3	0,03
Limbs	0,01	0,01
Cervical spine	0,2	0,03
Thoracic spine	0,5	0,06
Lumbar spine	0,7	0,08
Pelvic organs, hip	0,9	0,1
Ribs and sternum	0,8	0,1
Esophagus, stomach	0,8	0,1
Intestines	1,6	0,2
Head	0,1	0,04
Teeth, jaw	0,04	0,02
Kidneys	0,6	0,1
Breast	0,1	0,05
X-ray
Rib cage	3,3
Gastrointestinal tract	20
Esophagus, stomach	3,5
Intestines	12
Computed tomography (CT)
Rib cage	11
Limbs	0,1
Cervical spine	5,0
Thoracic spine	5,0
Lumbar spine	5,4
Pelvic organs, hip	9,5
Gastrointestinal tract	14
Head	2,0
Teeth, jaw	0,05

Obviously, the highest radiation dose can be obtained during fluoroscopy and computed tomography. In the first case, this is due to the duration of the study. Fluoroscopy usually takes a few minutes, and an x-ray is taken in a fraction of a second. Therefore, during dynamic research you are exposed to more radiation. Computed tomography involves a series of images: the more slices, the higher the load, this is the price to pay for the high quality of the resulting image. The radiation dose during scintigraphy is even higher, since radioactive elements are introduced into the body. You can read more about the differences between fluorography, radiography and other radiation research methods.

To reduce the potential harm from radiation examinations, there are protections available. These are heavy lead aprons, collars and plates that a doctor or laboratory assistant must provide you with before making a diagnosis. You can also reduce the risk of an X-ray or CT scan by spacing the studies as far apart as possible. The effects of radiation can accumulate and the body needs to be given time to recover. Trying to get a whole body scan done in one day is unwise.

How to remove radiation after an x-ray?

Ordinary X-rays are the effect on the body of gamma radiation, that is, high-energy electromagnetic oscillations. As soon as the device is turned off, the exposure stops; the radiation itself does not accumulate or collect in the body, so there is no need to remove anything. But during scintigraphy, radioactive elements are introduced into the body, which are the emitters of waves. After the procedure, it is usually recommended to drink more fluids to help get rid of the radiation faster.

What is the acceptable radiation dose for medical research?

How many times can you do fluorography, x-rays or CT scans without causing harm to your health? It is believed that all these studies are safe. On the other hand, they are not performed on pregnant women and children. How to figure out what is truth and what is a myth?

It turns out that the permissible dose of radiation for humans during medical diagnostics does not exist even in official documents of the Ministry of Health. The number of sieverts is subject to strict recording only for X-ray room workers, who are exposed to radiation day after day in company with patients, despite all protective measures. For them, the average annual load should not exceed 20 mSv; in some years, the radiation dose may be 50 mSv, as an exception. But even exceeding this threshold does not mean that the doctor will begin to glow in the dark or will grow horns due to mutations. No, 20–50 mSv is only the limit beyond which the risk of harmful effects of radiation on humans increases. The dangers of average annual doses less than this value could not be confirmed over many years of observations and research. At the same time, it is purely theoretically known that children and pregnant women are more vulnerable to x-rays. Therefore, they are advised to avoid radiation just in case; all studies related to X-ray radiation are carried out only for health reasons.

Dangerous dose of radiation

The dose beyond which radiation sickness begins - damage to the body under the influence of radiation - ranges from 3 Sv for humans. It is more than 100 times higher than the permissible annual average for radiologists, and it is simply impossible for an ordinary person to obtain it during medical diagnostics.

There is an order from the Ministry of Health that introduces restrictions on the radiation dose for healthy people during medical examinations - this is 1 mSv per year. This usually includes such types of diagnostics as fluorography and mammography. In addition, it is said that it is prohibited to resort to X-ray diagnostics for prophylaxis in pregnant women and children, and it is also impossible to use fluoroscopy and scintigraphy as a preventive study, as they are the most “heavy” in terms of radiation exposure.

The number of x-rays and tomograms should be limited by the principle of strict reasonableness. That is, research is necessary only in cases where refusing it would cause more harm than the procedure itself. For example, if you have pneumonia, you may need to take a chest x-ray every 7-10 days until complete recovery to monitor the effect of antibiotics. If we are talking about a complex fracture, then the study can be repeated even more often to ensure the correct comparison of bone fragments and the formation of callus, etc.

Are there any benefits from radiation?

It is known that in the room a person is exposed to natural background radiation. This is, first of all, the energy of the sun, as well as radiation from the bowels of the earth, architectural buildings and other objects. Complete exclusion of the effect of ionizing radiation on living organisms leads to a slowdown in cell division and early aging. Conversely, small doses of radiation have a restorative and healing effect. This is the basis for the effect of the famous spa procedure - radon baths.

On average, a person receives about 2–3 mSv of natural radiation per year. For comparison, with digital fluorography you will receive a dose equivalent to natural radiation for 7-8 days a year. And, for example, flying on an airplane gives an average of 0.002 mSv per hour, and even the work of a scanner in the control zone is 0.001 mSv in one pass, which is equivalent to the dose for 2 days of normal life under the sun.

Instructions

Civilized countries of the world have long had programs for the destruction of nuclear weapons: the lesson of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was not in vain. But there are a lot of nuclear power plants on the planet that are in no way protected from accidents. Therefore, every person should know the symptoms of radiation sickness and the dangers.

Radiation dose is measured in two units: Sievert and Gray. The dose of effective and equivalent radiation is expressed in Sieverts, and the dose of absorbed radiation is expressed in Grays. But in terms of their values, they are practically equal and do not require conversion from one unit to another.

Radiation sickness can be acute or chronic. Acute radiation sickness develops with a single and relatively short-term exposure to a dose of more than 1 Gy. The symptoms of acute radiation sickness are as follows:

Gradual increase in temperature;

Severe vomiting;

- “dying” of the bone marrow, when it is no longer able to produce white blood cells, as a result of which the body is completely defenseless against infections;

Confusion;

Severe headaches;

Burns of the skin of a “radiation” nature, when the skin is intense and almost uniform;

The appearance of intradermal hemorrhages due to damage;

Eye damage, usually premature clouding of the lens of the eye;

Degeneration of normal tissues into connective tissue - the development of sclerotic processes in large blood vessels and in the lungs;

Genetic and teratogenic, in which the risk of having grandchildren with mutations and deformities increases many times over.

Therefore, the concept of a peaceful atom is very relative. Radiation even in small doses can lead to certain consequences.

Basic methods of protection in case of radiation poisoning:
1. Isolation of people from exposure to radiation.
Protective properties of buildings, structures, shelters, anti-radiation shelters:
attenuation coefficient (how many times less): K >1000 - major bomb shelter; K donkey = 50-400 - basement; K = 5 - in a trench >1 meter deep;
Kosl = 2 - wooden house, car.
2. Respiratory protection.
3. Sealing of residential premises.
4. Protect food and water.
5. Use of radioprotective drugs, refusal to drink fresh milk.
6. Strict adherence to radiation protection regimes.
7. Disinfection and sanitary treatment.

Respirators are 75-85% effective, depending on how tightly the mask fits to the face. Light two- to four-layer gauze dressings (“petals”) have a lower percentage. Reliable respiratory protection will reduce the risk of internal exposure from radioactive dust. General-arms filter gas masks - additionally purify the inhaled air from smoke, fog of toxic substances and bacterial aerosols. On civilian models of gas masks, the color of the box of the filter element that protects against rad particles, including iodine, is Orange, the text marking of the filter type is Reaktor.

Clothing - hooded, waterproof, such as a raincoat. If you don’t have one, you can put a homemade film raincoat made of polyethylene on top. This will protect from settling radioactive dust and, to some extent, from beta burn. Hard gamma radiation (propagates straight from the source) - no clothing can stop it.

Diagnosis and treatment of radiation sickness

“Acute radiation sickness” (ARS) occurs as a result of exposure of the body to radiation in a dose of more than 1 Gray (the value for short-term exposure to radiation). At lower values, a “radiation reaction” is possible.

Chronic radiation sickness (CRS) - develops as a result of prolonged exposure of the body to doses of 0.1-0.5 centigrays (~1-5 millisieverts) per day with a total dose exceeding 0.7-1 Gy (~700-1000 mSv) .

Gamma rays and fast neutrons have the greatest penetrating power. Alpha and beta radiation cause burns to the skin, mucous membranes, internal organs and tissues (if isotopes get inside, with inhaled air, food and water). During the accident at the Japanese nuclear power plant Fukushima, in the first days, the main radioactivity was from iodine-131 (more than 50%) and cesium-137.

Penetrating radiation affects tissues and organs of the body. The most sensitive cells are rapidly dividing: bone marrow, intestines and skin. More resistance is found in liver, kidney and heart cells.

With very large amounts of radiation, hundreds and thousands of roentgens per hour, a person sees the glow of a radioactive source, feels the heat and heat emanating from it and feels, close to him, the pungent smell of ozone in highly ionized air (like after a thunderstorm).

Using the example of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, in a reactor torn apart by an explosion, emitting tens of thousands of X-rays, electronic equipment on semiconductor crystals could fail, break down and stop working (due to erasing data from memory cells - ROM and RAM, degradation of n-p junctions in transistors and microcircuits, damage to the computer's central processor and camera matrix), the film will instantly become overexposed and even the quartz glass will darken. Ordinary, household dosimeters-radiometers are off the scale (only a device, such as the old, antediluvian military model DP-5, will show at least something, up to a level of 200 Roentgen). With such radiation power, with a rapid (in a matter of minutes and hours) build-up of a lethal dose of 5-10 Gray, people develop symptoms caused by strong radiation: severe weakness and headache, nausea and vomiting. Body temperature may increase. As a result of severe radiation burns, skin hyperemia (redness or bronze tan) and injection of scleral vessels (red whites of the eyes) appear.

All persons whose total dose (according to the primary response criteria) is 4 Gy or more are immediately hospitalized.

The exact dose of radiation received by a person is determined by readings from radiation sensors (individual dosimeters) with clarification from blood tests and other clinical indicators.

Treatment should be carried out in specialized clinics, followed by regular cancer examinations. X-ray studies (including fluorography) are excluded if possible.

First aid kit with "radiation antidote"

In the prevention and treatment of radiation injuries, “decontamination agents” used to remove radioactive substances from the surface of the body and from environmental objects are of great importance.

Radioprotectors (various groups of radiation damage modifiers, produced in the form of tablets, powders and solutions) - are introduced into the body in advance, before irradiation. Anti-radiation agents also include phenolic compounds of food and medicinal plants (tangerine, sea buckthorn, hawthorn, motherwort, immortelle, licorice) and bee propolis.

“Miraculous”, effective drugs with a wide spectrum of action, stubbornly not recognized by official medicine, include - ASD-2 fraction (veterinary antiseptic Dorogov stimulant, produced by the Armavir biofactory, or deodorized from Moscow) ...

To relieve symptoms of intoxication from chemo-radiation therapy and accelerate the onset of remission, Taktivin and other immunocorrectors and immunomodulators are used.

In case of radiation damage to the skin (nuclear tanning), infusions/decoctions of chestnut or walnut leaves in sunflower or amaranth oil are useful for its treatment. Walnut oil can also help with ordinary sunburn of any degree, regenerating damaged tissue.

Fruit and berry drinks (juices, fruit drinks, alcohol - red wine), as well as fruits and some vegetables - increase metabolism and the removal of radionuclides from the body. The damaging effect on tissue of penetrating radiation is reduced by vegetable oil (regular, sunflower, or better yet, nut, sea buckthorn or olive oil) or taking vitamin E in advance, before irradiation. Hypoxia (with infrequent breathing or low oxygen content in the inhaled air) also affects free radicals in the blood, which is necessary at the time of irradiation and for several hours after. When processing food and water with a constant magnetic field (magnet), with induction, in the magnetization working zone, about 50-400 millitesla (500-4000 Gauss) - the therapeutic and health-improving effect is enhanced due to the improvement of water-salt metabolism (salt solubility increases) and the composition of body fluids (blood, lymph and intercellular fluid). The magnetization effect remains at an effective level for several hours after treatment.

Biologically active points (BAP) to accelerate the removal of radiation to cleanse the body of radionuclides and improve metabolism: V49 on the back, in the lumbar region (i-she, normalizes the functioning of the heart, kidneys and adrenal glands), E21 on the stomach on the right (liang-men) and foot points - V40 (wei-zhong), R8 (jiao-xin), E36 (zu-san-li). Rubbing, massage of all joints and the base of the neck (easier, especially where there are lymphatic vessels and nodes) - cleansing bone tissue of radioactive isotopes and heavy metals. Bio-energy meridians must be cleaned (improving the nervous system, hematopoietic organs, cleaning blood and lymphatic vessels).

Permanent light compositions (SLPs)

From the beginning of the last century, the twentieth century until the 60s, radium paint glowing in the dark (the effect of radioluminescence of the light composition, based on the reaction of 226Ra with copper and zinc) was applied to the dials and hands of wall and wrist clocks, alarm clocks, and was also used for phosphor coating of jewelry, souvenirs and even children's toys and Christmas tree decorations. Radium-226 was widely used in military equipment, in compasses and weapon sights - on airplanes, ships and submarines.

The level of radioactive radiation in the immediate vicinity of the luminous surfaces of these antique antiques could reach large values ​​- hundreds (for some specimens - thousands) microroentgens per hour (since, in addition to alpha particles, the 226Ra isotope also emits gamma rays with the energy 0.2 MeV), and approaches background values ​​- at a distance of 1-2 meters from the source (the effect of scattering gamma rays with low energy). The usual color of luminous radium paint is yellowish or cream. The brightness of the glow, a year or two after application, noticeably decreases (zinc sulphide gradually decomposes, “burns out,” but the radiation remains, because the half-life of 226Ra is long, more than one and a half thousand years, with a bad bouquet of “daughter” isotopes) .

Radium226, according to its chemical structure, is an analogue of calcium and when its molecules enter the human body, it can accumulate in the bones, causing internal irradiation of the body.

In modern industrial safe (if the seal of the device is not broken) permanent light compositions (SPD) with short-range sources of radioactive radiation, a mixture of radiothorium (alpha particles) and mesothorium or tritium / promethium-147 (pure beta) phosphor is used.

Radiation dose accumulates in the body in the form of irreversible changes in tissues and organs (especially intensively - at high levels of penetrating radiation and receiving large doses from it) and radionuclides settling in bones and tissues, causing internal irradiation (radioactive cesium-137 and strontium-90 - have a half-life - about 30 years, iodine-131 - 8 days).

A level that can have a noticeable harmful effect on human health is more than 10 millisieverts per day.

Having received a radiation dose of 5 sieverts for several hours in a row, a person can die within a few weeks.

Intervention levels: to begin temporary resettlement of the population - 30 mSv per month, to end - 10 mSv per month. If the dose accumulated over one month is predicted to remain above these levels for a year, the issue of relocation to permanent residence should be considered.

With increased accuracy, you can measure radiation with a household dosimeter-radiometer by taking quite a lot of measurements at a point (at a height of 1 meter from the ground surface) and calculating the average value or with several working devices at once, followed by averaging the measurement results. Record the readings taken, the time and number of measurements, the name, model and serial number of the equipment used, as well as the location and reason for the test. If it is raining, you must indicate this, since high humidity negatively affects the operation of these devices. Visually draw a map-scheme of the gamma survey - in the form of a picture or drawing with the main elements of the situation (lines) and indicating the compass orientation at the survey site. If local foci of gamma radiation are detected with a dose rate exceeding twice the natural background for a given area, it is necessary to carefully delineate them using measurements on a ten-meter coordinate grid and contact the local SES (sanitary and epidemiological station).

Natural, terrestrial sources of increased radioactive background are determined mainly by the peculiarities of the geological structure of a particular area and are usually associated with nearby granite (and other intrusive rocks) massifs and flooded tectonic faults (a source of radioactive emanations of radon gas from groundwater). In underground cavities, in caves and adits located there, there may be increased background radiation values, which speleologists and diggers need to take into account (you must have at least one working normal dosimeter-radiometer per group, with an audible alarm turned on).

The results of individual monitoring of personnel radiation doses must be stored for 50 years. When conducting individual monitoring, it is necessary to keep records of the annual effective and equivalent doses, the effective dose for 5 consecutive years, as well as the total accumulated dose for the entire period of professional work.

In Chernobyl, during the accident, the liquidators worked until they reached a dose of 25 rem, that is, twenty-five roentgens (this is approximately 250 millisieverts), after which they were sent from there. Health status was also monitored using regular blood tests.

There is no radiation from a cell phone, but there is electromagnetic microwave radiation (the highest power at the antenna - in talk mode and with poor quality of the received signal), which is non-ionizing, but still has a damaging effect on biological tissues, especially on the central nervous system ( on the brain) and on the state of health in general, IF you do not use a wired headset or hands free telephone headphones. Medical studies have shown that from the electromagnetic field of a telephone handset, memory deteriorates, a person’s intellectual abilities decrease, headaches and night insomnia occur. If calls on a mobile phone last more than 1 hour a day (professional level of radiation exposure), you must regularly (every year) be seen by a doctor (a general practitioner, if necessary, an oncologist). You can protect yourself if, when using headphones, you hold the mobile phone handset at a sufficient distance to reduce its radiation - no closer than half a meter from your head.

Persons exposed to a single dose of radiation exceeding 100 mSv should not be exposed to doses exceeding 20 mSv/year in further work. These people are not contagious. The danger comes from radioactive substances, for example, in the form of dust on work uniforms and the soles of shoes.

In the event of an emergency (emergency), to monitor the situation - have with you an individual dosimeter (always on in accumulation mode) or a radiometer configured to sound the threshold radiation value, for example - 0.7 µSv/h (µSv/h, uSv/h - designation in English) = 70 micro roentgen/hour. Gas masks used in the zone of radioactive contamination (especially their filters) are a source of radiation.

When coal is burned, potassium-40, uranium-238 and thorium-232 contained in it are released in microscopic quantities. For this reason, furnaces that were fired with coal, ash dumps and nearby areas over which dust and ash fell from coal smoke have some radioactivity, usually not exceeding permissible standards. Using a radiometer and a magnetometer, archaeologists find ancient sites and human dwellings located at great depths from the surface of the earth.

After the Chernobyl accident, in the “shining” territories adjacent to the disaster site, in populated areas that were covered by a radioactive cloud, special mechanized units carried out the liquidation and burial or decontamination of buildings and property, contaminated equipment (trucks and cars, earth-moving and construction -road cars). As a result of the accident, water bodies, pastures, forests and arable lands were exposed to radiation contamination, some of which are still “ringing” to this day.

Tumor (cancerous) cells can withstand irradiation up to several thousand roentgens, but healthy tissues do not survive and die at an absorbed dose of 100-400 R

Iodine-containing preparations and seafood (seaweed / Kelp) should be taken in advance, in reasonable quantities and according to the instructions - to prevent thyroid cancer from radioactive 131 I. You cannot drink a regular alcohol solution of iodine. You can only smear it externally - in the form of an iodine net (or “flowered”, under Khokhloma), draw it on the skin of the neck or other parts of the body (if there is no allergy to it).

There are several main ways to protect against penetrating radiation: limiting the exposure time, reducing the activity and energy of the radiation source, distance - the dose rate decreases with the square of the distance from the isotope (this rule only applies to small, “point sources”, relatively small linear dimensions). When large areas and territories on the surface of the Earth are contaminated or when radionuclides, in the form of fine particles, enter the upper layers of the atmosphere, the stratosphere (with a sufficiently large power of nuclear warheads - from one hundred kilotons and above) - the level of radioactive radiation will be higher, the damage to the environment and danger to the population, radiation (dose) load is greater. In the event of a large-scale nuclear war, with the use of hundreds or several thousand nuclear warheads (including high and ultra-high power), in addition to radiation, there will be catastrophic consequences in the form of global (planetary scale) climate changes, abnormally cold, nuclear winter and night (lasting up to several years) - without sunlight (access to solar energy will decrease hundreds of times, with a widespread decrease in air temperature by 30-40 degrees), with famine and mass extinction of the population of entire continents, the disappearance of most flora and fauna, destruction of ecosystems, loss of the ozone layer (which protects the Earth from destructive cosmic rays for all living things) by the atmosphere of the planet. Numerous nuclear power plants, nuclear waste storage facilities, gushing oil wells and burning gas flares, warehouses, factories and chemicals were left unattended and unmaintained after the global cataclysm. factories will add to the environmental problems of a depopulated planet. In the slang of "survivalists", such future events are called BP (from the abbreviation of the name "Big and Fluffy Northern Animal"), and before it was called the Apocalypse. Then, after the deposition of raised dust and ash on the earth and snow surfaces, when they are heated by solar radiation, a “nuclear summer” will begin, with the melting of the glaciers of the Himalayas, Greenland, Antarctica and the snow caps of the mountains, with an increase in the level of the world ocean, inland seas and reservoirs , the “global flood” will happen again. Perhaps people who took refuge in mountain caves and mines or in deep underground bunkers and shelters with a supply of food for several years, with a reserve of fresh water, with air storage and regeneration systems will survive. The opportunity to survive when the poles change will also be available to submariners of nuclear submarines who went to sea shortly before the disaster. City residents will try, for some time, to take refuge in old, unflooded bomb shelters or in city metro tunnels, while at the nearest prod. warehouses will not run out of food and drinking water. Humanity still has a chance to avoid the next and most destructive world war if new NBIC technologies (nano-, bio-, information and cognitive) appear and optimally begin to be introduced into everyday life, solving civilizational problems with energy resources and food supply for the planet's population.

Oil field studies show a marked increase in radiation levels in the area of ​​oil wells, caused by the gradual deposition of radium-226, thorium-232 and potassium-40 salts on equipment and adjacent soil. Therefore, spent oilfield drill pipes often become radioactive waste.

Non-ionizing radiation, due to its lower energy compared to ionizing radiation, is not capable of breaking the chemical bonds of molecules. But, with long-term exposure (duration) of exposure and some of its parameters (intensity, combination of frequencies, modulation of the signal and its strength, frequency of exposure) - they can adversely affect a living organism and worsen the health of people. According to the usual classification, non-ionizing radiation includes: electromagnetic radiation (in the range of industrial and radio frequencies), electrostatic field, laser radiation, constant and, especially, alternating magnetic fields (the magnitude of which is more than 0.2 μT). In modern urban conditions, human life is constantly surrounded by various non-ionizing radiation from household appliances (microwave ovens and other electrical appliances), transport, power lines, etc. They pose a danger to people with weakened immune systems, patients with diseases of the central nervous, hormonal, and cardiovascular systems.

The population can be protected using various protective equipment and organizational and technical measures - limiting the time and intensity of exposure, distance (distance to the emitter) and location, using grounded protective screens (sheet metal, foil or mesh, various films and textile fabrics with a metallized coating) to weaken the fields.

Living organisms are constantly exposed to irradiation from natural sources, which include cosmic radiation, radionuclides of cosmic and terrestrial origin - 40 K, 238 U, 232 Th and their daughter nuclides, including 222 Rn (radon).

In practice, to quickly check food products or building materials, soil and soil with a household radiometer, the filter cover is removed and the device operates (“counts”) in the “indicator of excesses above the natural background” mode of gamma + hard betta radiation (if with a cover, it will measure only the gamut). To protect from water and dampness, place the device in transparent cellophane. Alpha particles cannot be detected by any household device; this requires professional equipment.

The equivalent dose rate of man-made radiation = the result of measurement by a radiometer (in microsieverts) minus the natural background radiation. In places where members of the public are located, it should not exceed 0.12 μSv/hour. For example, the background (that is, usual) value in a given area is 0.10 μSv/h, and measured there, at the outer surface of an object, is 0.15 μSv/h. Then: 0.15 - 0.10 = 0.05, which is not higher than the permissible twelve hundredths of a microsievert. This means that at this point there is no excess of 0.12 μSv/hour above the background level - technogenic radiation is “normal for the population”, in terms of radiation.

In the simplest homemade radiometer, the sensor is elongated sheets of thin newsprint or foil petals. They are attached to a metal rod placed in a glass jar. From the side, through the glass, such an indicator reacts to gamma, and if you bring an object from above, it also reacts to beta and alpha radiation (at a distance of up to 9 cm, directly, since alpha is absorbed even by a sheet of paper and a ten-centimeter layer of air). The detector must be electrified with static electricity so that the complete discharge time is at least 30 seconds, using a stopwatch (only if the transition process is long enough to ensure the accuracy of measurements). To do this, you can use a regular plastic comb. Start and end measurements with any device, not just homemade ones, by determining the background values ​​(if everything was done correctly, they will be approximately the same). To reduce the air humidity in the jar (so that the electroscope holds a charge) - heat it and place granules of silica gel or aluminum gel inside (pre-dry them, bake them on some fairly hot surface, in a frying pan).

// When searching for the first uranium deposits for the defense purposes of our country (potential adversaries, the Americans, were already testing their nuclear weapons at that time, and their plans were to use them against the USSR), Soviet geologists also used such first sensors, for lack of others (before measurements, the jar was dried in a hot Russian oven), to check the level of radioactivity of the found ore samples.

An example of measurements with a homemade petal radiometer on building materials:
background value - 42 seconds (based on the results of several measurements, background = (41+43+42) / 3 = 42 s.
quartz sand - 43 pp.
red brick - 32 pp.
crushed granite - 15 s.
RESULT: the crushed stone seems to be radioactive - its radiation is almost three times (42: 15 = 2.8) higher than the background (the value is not absolute, relative, but a multiple of the background values ​​is a fairly reliable indicator). If measurements by specialists using a professional instrument confirm the result (three times the background), the local SES (sanitary and epidemiological station) and the Ministry of Emergency Situations will take care of the problem. They will conduct a detailed radiometric survey of the contaminated area and the surrounding area and, if necessary, decontaminate the area.

Lead poisoning (Saturnism)

Heavy metals include those whose density is greater than that of iron (lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, cobalt, nickel). Accumulating in the human body, they cause carcinogenic effects.

Let's consider this using the example of lead (lat. Plumbum).

Lead enters the body in different ways: through the respiratory system (in the form of dust, aerosols and vapors), with food (5-10% is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract) and through the skin. Lead compounds are soluble in gastric juice and other body fluids.

Forms of “saturnism” are weakness, anemia (pallor), intestinal colic (intestinal paralysis), nervous disorders and joint pain. One of the main signs of the disease is anemia. Brain lesions are clinically accompanied by convulsions and delirium, sometimes leading to drowsiness and coma. Of the peripheral nerves, the motor nerves are most often affected; paresis and paralysis often develop in the extensors of the hands and shoulder girdle. A gray “lead border” forms on the gums.

Lead accumulates in bones (the half-life of bone tissue is more than 20 years), nails and hair, as well as in the tissues of the liver and kidneys.

Lead encephalopathy is an acute disorder observed more often in children who have ingested lead paint. It begins with convulsions, after increased intracranial pressure and cerebral edema.

Dyes containing lead: lead white (lead carbonate, poisonous), red lead and litharge (red oxides), massicot (yellow). Enameled dishes coated on the inside with red or yellow enamel, as well as those with chips and cracks in the enamel, are harmful to health (poisoning with lead, cadmium, nickel, copper, chromium, manganese and other metals is possible).

In nature, lead ore appears as a result of the transformation of radioactive isotopes of uranium and thorium into stable (non-radioactive) isotopes of Pb with the release of alpha particles (helium nuclei).

Historical information: in 1697, the German physician Eberhard Gockel published a book entitled “A Remarkable Account of the Previously Unknown “Wine Sickness” Caused in the Years 1694, 95 and 96 by the Sweetening of Sour Wine with Lead Lithe...”, based on the results of his medical practice .