Methodology and main indicators of economic analysis. How to Calculate the Specific Gravity or Structure of a Phenomenon

Under the cadastral value of an object, its real value is determined, which is officially established by state bodies using mass valuation methods. It differs from the market value in that when evaluating a large number of objects, their individual characteristics are taken into account, and after dividing them into groups, the price of each of them is calculated. In the event that the mass method is not applicable to any real estate object, its individual examination by a professional appraiser is allowed, with the data entered into the Registry report.

The decision to conduct a cadastral valuation is made by the local authorities. It is carried out by professional appraisers with whom a contract is concluded, and the result of the work performed is the submitted report, the data of which are entered into the State Register.

Dear readers!

Our articles talk about typical ways to resolve legal issues, but each case is unique. If you want to know how to solve your particular problem, please use the online consultant form on the right →

It's fast and free! Or give us a call (24/7):

How are rating groups formed?

Valuation groups are used when grouping data about real estate objects for using mass valuation methods. Groups are formed according to the principle of equal use of the land, that is, according to its intended purpose.

The cadastral value of all real estate objects that are included in a certain group is calculated based on a single valuation formula. It is determined by groups of a single category by appraisers. For this, the comparison method or income-expenditure methods are used. The comparative method involves comparing the prices of a certain type of property, which are dictated by the sales market. The level of income is determined by the type of intended use, and the costs are calculated based on the need for capital investment.

The appraiser determines the value of the land plot under the apartment building, which is subsequently used to value all plots of the same type.

Thus, to conduct a cadastral valuation of land, the plots are first divided into groups, then the cost of one plot in such a group is calculated, which is applied to all objects similar to the identified one.

How is the valuation model determined?

The conditions dictated by the sales market are taken into account by the appraiser in accordance with the current legislation when determining the cadastral value of objects of appraisal. To do this, on the basis of data on pricing in the sales market, a statistical model is compiled - the construction of a mathematical valuation formula for each type of real estate that makes up different valuation groups.

The appraisal model means the compilation by a professional appraiser of an equation that is used to calculate the cadastral value of real estate assigned to one appraisal group.

Valuation models include pricing factors that affect the price of properties in the sales market. According to these indicators, a formula is built for calculating the cadastral value of a property. Depending on the type of property and conditions, the appraiser may take into account such factors as:

• The location of the land or house;
• Type of intended use;
• Availability of nearby infrastructure;
• The possibility of summing up communications and others.

Mass valuation methods imply the substitution in the formula of the valuation model of a set of pricing factors that affect a certain group of objects. In the course of using the formula, the specific indicator of the cadastral formula is determined - the price of 1 square meter of the area of ​​​​an apartment, house or land plot. The UPKS is subsequently multiplied by the size of a particular plot or living area of ​​the apartment, resulting in an officially determined value of the property, which is entered in the state register.

Pricing factors and specific indicator

Pricing factors are the qualitative or quantitative characteristics of objects that are subject to valuation in one valuation group, and, according to the appraiser, influence the pricing of real estate in a particular region, taking into account sales market conditions.

A professional appraiser, whose services are used by state bodies, individuals or legal entities under a contract, collects information about pricing factors that directly or indirectly affect the valuation of real estate. These include location, level of development of infrastructure and transport links in the region, type of real estate and its purpose.

Under the specific indicator of cadastral value, the price of a unit of measurement of the area of ​​a certain type of real estate is determined. According to the Code of Civil Procedure, the cadastral value of land plots or apartments is calculated.

Application of individual assessment

In the event that the appraisal model built by the appraiser for a certain type of property is not applicable to the appraisal of a particular plot or apartment, a decision can be made to conduct an individual appraisal. This decision may be required if the characteristics of a particular object differ from the bulk group. An individual appraisal can be provided at the discretion of the appraiser with approval from government agencies, ordered by the owner or interested person.

For each object that has been evaluated individually, a separate report is submitted, on the basis of which the cadastral value is calculated. Thus, the specific indicator for this price will be determined individually, taking into account the pricing factors and those that caused the individual assessment.

When is a correction factor used?

The definition of the adjustment factor refers to the amount of value of the specific features of the evaluation group in comparison with the standard model. The correction factor is used by the appraiser in order to level the specifics of the appraisal object in relation to pricing factors.

This indicator is determined as a result of the assessment, if there are good reasons for reducing the cadastral price. This is done in order not to conduct an individual assessment, but to be able to determine the real price of the site, taking into account some features. For example, the inclusion of an apartment in the emergency housing fund or unfinished roads near the land may cause them to be assessed in a special manner and reduce the cost.

The appraiser independently determines by what percentage it can be compared with the standard model, taking into account the reasons that served to apply the correction factor. To determine the real price, which will subsequently be entered into the official Register, the appraiser multiplies the specific indicator by the area of ​​​​the property, and then uses the correction factor.

Changes to the existing cadastral value are made at least once every three years, but not more often than once every five years. Before the expiration of this period, an interested person, most often the owner, can apply to the state authorities for a reassessment, according to which changes will be made to the current indicators of the Cadastre. Also, the current price can be challenged in a judicial or pre-trial order.

How to find out the specific indicator?

Objects for which generalized price information is indicated are real estate objects that have similar basic parameters in a certain valuation group. According to them, statistical data are indicated, according to which a report is built on sales transactions and others related to the transfer of ownership in the region for the last reporting period. The summarized data should be similar in economic, operational and technical characteristics. The reporting period is determined by the time when the last revaluation of the objects entered in the Cadastre was carried out.

To find information about the specific indicator or calculate it yourself on an online calculator, you can use the Rosreestr website. On it you can find the data that were used by the appraiser when choosing pricing factors in the block with their description to build an appraisal model.

You can also find out the parameters for selecting the main characteristics of price information using the property card. It contains information about the characteristics of the entire property fund, which is subject to registration in the state Cadastre.

When can the cadastral value be inflated

Despite the fact that the cadastral value of real estate is determined in accordance with the law on the basis of its specific indicator multiplied by the area of ​​a land plot or apartment, cases of overestimation of this figure in relation to its real price are quite common. The specific indicator is set by local authorities, but when calculating the value of the appraisal object, which will be entered in the state register, its individual characteristics are not taken into account. Therefore, an overstatement in the order of real estate objects may arise due to:

Individual types of permitted use may have completely different specific indicators, which will differ for different regions.

What is cadastral value used for?

The cadastral value of real estate, which is determined by multiplying the specific indicator by the area of ​​the object, is required in order to calculate the amount of taxation of the subjects of ownership. Real estate objects are subject to taxation for the use of land. Tax rates are set at the local level, and it is the cadastral indicator of the price of a plot or apartment that acts as the tax base.

It is also useful to find out the cadastral valuation before entering into a contract of sale or any other transaction related to the transfer of ownership. The payment that will need to be made when re-registering ownership of the new owner depends on the definition of this figure.

Dear readers!

It's fast and free! Or give us a call (24/7).

Spectroscopic methods of analysis are based on the selective absorption (absorption) of electromagnetic radiation by the analyzed substance. In pharmaceutical analysis, they are used for structure determination, identification, purity assessment, and quantification of light-absorbing substances.

The current equipment allows the use of the following wavelength ranges for analytical purposes: ultraviolet (190–380 nm), visible (380–780 nm), infrared (780–40,000 nm or 0.78–400 µm).

Depending on the equipment used, the registered physical and chemical effect (absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation) and the region of the spectrum, the following spectroscopic methods are distinguished:

♦ spectrophotometry in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible region;

♦ spectrophotometry in the infrared (IR) region;

♦ atomic emission and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AES and AAS);

♦ fluorimetry;

♦ nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR).

Each of these methods has its uses in pharmaceutical analysis.

This section will discuss the use of spectrophotometry in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible region, the so-called photometric methods, in pharmaceutical analysis.

Photometric methods are based on measuring the intrinsic absorption of pharmaceutical substances (PM), due to the presence of chromophore groups in them, or the absorption of the reaction products of pharmaceutical substances with certain reagents, associated with the appearance of chromophore groups as a result of various chemical transformations.

In the group of photometric methods, there are:

– spectrophotometry (analysis of the absorption of monochromatic radiation) in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible region;

– colorimetry and photocolorimetry (analysis by absorption of non-monochromatic radiation) in the visible region.

The absorption of light by a solution of one or another drug depends on many factors: the nature of the substance, the nature of the solvent, the concentration of the substance in the solution, the wavelength of the incident light. At the same time, the influence of all these factors can be ordered, reduced to a number of separate dependencies and expressed by a certain mathematical dependence:

Where I is the intensity of the light flux after passing through the solution; I 0 is the intensity of the incident light flux; l - layer thickness, cm; WITH– concentration (% or mol/l); κ is the light absorption index of the solution at a solute concentration equal to unity.

This relationship is known as the basis of the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer light absorption law. It underlies most photometric methods of analysis and is formulated as follows:

"The intensity of the monochromatic light flux passing through the solution is proportional to the intensity of the incident light flux and depends on the concentration of the colored substance and the thickness of the solution layer."

After transformations and logarithms, equation 3.19 is expressed by the following mathematical relationship:

(3.19)

Where A is the optical density of the solution; l is the thickness of the absorbing layer, cm; WITH is the concentration of the solution, % or mol/L.

Subject to the basic law of light absorption, the optical density of the solution is proportional to the light absorption coefficient, the concentration of the absorbing substance and the thickness of the solution layer.

Deviations from the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law cause:

Nonlinear dependence of the instrument readings on the intensity of the light flux;

Non-monochromaticity of the used light flux;

Variability of temperature during measurements;

Acid-base interaction, dissociation, association, polymerization, change in the pH of the medium with a change in the concentration of the determined pharmaceutical substance and other processes occurring in the analyzed system.

Graphically, the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law is expressed by a straight line ( fig.1, curve 1) passing through the origin of coordinates in the absence of light absorption by the solvent and systematic errors. The graphic dependence makes it possible to reveal the limits of the subordination of the light absorption of the solutions of the studied substances to the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law. If the law is not observed, straightness is violated in any section or on the entire straight line ( rice. 1, curves 2,3).

Figure 1 - The dependence of optical density on the concentration of the solution (calibration graph) while observing the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law (1); with positive (2) and negative (3) deviation from it

According to the literature data, the relative error in the determination of individual compounds by spectrophotometry does not exceed 2%, and by photocolorimetry, 3%. The higher accuracy of spectrophotometry compared to photocolorimetry is mainly due to the monochromaticity of the electromagnetic radiation used.

Transformations of the basic law equation (3.19) make it possible to derive the value of some photometric quantities.

The ratio of the intensity of the light flux passing through the solution to the intensity of the incident light flux is called transmission and denoted T (%):

(3.20)

The value of T, referred to a layer thickness of 1 cm, is called transmittance(1/T).

The logarithm of the reciprocal of transmission is called redemption or optical density and denoted by the letter A(Aabsorbtion):

(3.21)

Where  is the absorption coefficient, the physical meaning of which can be derived from the equation:

(3.22)

Where  is a specific physical constant for each individual substance under strictly defined conditions; used for identification, purity assessment and quantitation.

If the concentration of the test solution (C) is 1 M/l, and the thickness of the absorbing layer (l) is 1 cm, then:

(3.23)

Where  - molar absorption coefficient - optical density of 1 molar solution placed in a cuvette with a layer thickness of 1 cm.

If the concentration of the test solution (C) is 1%, the thickness of the absorbing layer (l) is 1 cm, then:

(3.24)

Where
- specific absorption index - optical density of a 1% solution placed in a cuvette with a layer thickness of 1 cm.

Molar and Specific Absorption Rates depend on the nature of the substance, the nature of the solvent, the wavelength of the transmitted light, the temperature of the solution. Specific and molar absorption rates are determined experimentally.

Solution Optical Density depends, along with the above factors, on the concentration of the solution and the thickness of the solute layer (cell thickness). According to the instructions of the GF, the optical density of solutions should be measured at a temperature of (20 ± 1) 0 C.

EXAMPLE: Calculate the value of the specific absorption rate of furadonin (nitrofurantoin), if 0.1000 g of the substance was dissolved in 2.5 ml of 1 M sodium hydroxide solution in a volumetric flask with a capacity of 100 ml, brought to the mark with water, mixed (standard solution).

A series of standard dilutions was prepared from the resulting solution: 0.6 ml of the standard solution was added sequentially to a 100 ml volumetric flask, diluted with water to the mark, and mixed.

Optical densities (A i) of the obtained solutions, measured on a spectrophotometer (photocolorimeter) relative to water at a wavelength of 445 nm in a cuvette with a layer thickness of 1.0 cm, amounted to: 0.280; 0.276; 0.284; 0.282; 0.280; 0.278.

SOLUTION: Pre-calculate the concentration (C,%) of the standard dilution. To do this, use the standard dilution preparation scheme:

The specific absorption rate is calculated using formula 3.24. The SAR values ​​for each standard dilution are shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 - Values ​​​​of the specific absorption rate of furadonin

V, ml

ANSWER: The specific absorption rate of furadonin (nitrofurantoin) is 466.7.

The substance absorbs electromagnetic radiation selectively. The dependence of the optical density of a solution or the values ​​\u200b\u200bof the absorption index (molar or specific) of a solute on the wavelength is called absorption spectrum(Fig. 2).

Figure 2 - Absorption spectra of 0.001% papaverine hydrochloride solution in 0.1M hydrochloric acid solution (solid line) and 0.1M sodium hydroxide solution (dashed line)

The absorption spectrum is characterized by regions of extreme absorption (maxima) at certain wavelengths.

Absorption spectra are used for the identification, purity assessment (content of impurities) and quantitative analysis (selection of analytical wavelengths) of drugs.

Identification (authentication) of pharmaceutical substances individually and in single-component dosage forms in accordance with Russian and international normative documents (GF, MF, FS, FSP) is carried out by:

♦ by comparing the absorption spectra of the test and standard (GSO) samples obtained under the same conditions (furazolidone, etc.);

♦ by known parameters of absorption spectra:

- by the position of the maxima at certain wavelengths: analgin (metamizol-sodium), ascorbic acid, acetylsalicylic acid, hydrocortisone acetate, codeine, caffeine, paracetamol, etc. The position of the absorption maximum of the analyzed pharmaceutical substance may differ from that indicated in the private PS by ± 2 nm . This method of identification is the simplest, but not sufficiently reliable, therefore it is used as an additional criterion;

- by the position of maxima and minima at certain wavelengths: acetylsalicylic acid, verapamil hydrochloride, diphenhydramine (diphenhydramine hydrochloride), drotaverine hydrochloride, isoniazid, carbamazepine, levomycetin (chloramphenicol), methyluracil, metronidazole, etc .;

- according to the position of maxima, minima, shoulders and inflection points at certain wavelengths: clonidine hydrochloride (clophelin), nitrazepam, fenpiverinium bromide, etc.;

- by the position of the maxima and minima in the differential absorption spectra obtained by measuring the spectra of acidic solutions relative to alkaline ones and vice versa: sulfadimethoxine, etc.;

- by the position of maxima and minima and the value of optical densities in the maxima: tetracycline hydrochloride, oxytetracycline dihydrate, reserpine, etc. This method of identification is more reliable than the previous ones;

- according to the position of the maxima at certain wavelengths and the ratio of optical densities in the indicated maxima: atenolol, etc.;

- by the value of the specific absorption rate at the absorption maximum: benzylpenicillin sodium, potassium, novocaine salt, etc. It is used most often;

- by the magnitude of the ratio of optical densities at two or more wavelengths: folic acid, methicillin sodium salt, sodium para-aminosalicylate, etc.;

- by the difference in optical densities at two wavelengths: phenoxymethylpenicillin, benzylpenicillin sodium salt, etc.;

- by the absence of pronounced absorption maxima in a certain region of the spectrum: piracetam.

When establishing the authenticity (qualitative analysis) of some pharmaceutical substances, the listed methods are used in different combinations.

The same characteristics make it possible to evaluate the purity of pharmaceutical substances, since in the presence of impurities, the absorption spectrum of the main substance may shift or appear additional maxima, inflections, shoulders, increase or decrease the values ​​of specific or molar absorption indices, etc.

The purity (presence of absorbing impurities) of a number of pharmaceutical substances is determined by the ratio of optical densities at absorption maxima at two or more wavelengths (atenolol, cyanocobalamin, retinol acetate, rutin, etc.).

The method of spectrophotometry in pharmaceutical analysis establishes the authenticity of pharmaceutical substances individually and in dosage forms, the degree of purity and quantitative content, the method of photocolorimetry - quantitative content.

The quantitative content of pharmaceutical substances in the analysis by spectrophotometry and photocolorimetry is calculated in different ways depending on the composition of the analyzed object (individually or in dosage forms: one-, two-, multicomponent).

The size of the cadastral value determines the amount of property tax and land tax (clause 1 of article 378.2, clause 1, 2 of article 390 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation), rent, the amount of the redemption value for public land plots, etc. If there is confidence that the cadastral valuation of your property is too high, you need to find out how this value is set:

• appraiser within the framework of the state cadastral valuation;
• based on the results of the state cadastral valuation in the form of specific or average specific indicators of cadastral value for a certain group of objects.

The value is determined by the appraiser

Determining the cadastral value of the object, the appraiser collects market information, and if it is not enough, then the market value is assessed individually for a particular object.

The state cadastral valuation of land is carried out depending on the category of land and its location (clauses 5–7 of the Rules for conducting state cadastral valuation of land, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 04/08/2000 No. 316):

• on the basis of a statistical analysis of market prices, other information about real estate, other methods of mass valuation;
• based on the capitalization of the estimated rental income;
• based on the costs necessary for the reproduction and (or) conservation and maintenance of the value of their natural potential.

Not only the cadastral value of the plot is entered into the cadastre, but also information about the specific indicator (per sq. m) - the cadastral value of a particular land plot, divided by its area.

Until a new round of cadastral valuation, the average specific indicator can be the basis for determining the cadastral value of plots formed from the assessed plot as a result of division or allotment.

An act with a cadastral valuation can be challenged as a legal act if it was possible to identify formal violations, because the results of the state cadastral valuation (determining the cadastral value) are approved by an act that the courts consider as a legal act.

The court checks the formal conformity of the challenged normative legal act with an act of greater legal force in terms of content, procedure for issuing and competence of the body that issued it.

We emphasize once again that in order to challenge the act of approving the results of the state cadastral valuation, it is necessary to prove that formal violations were committed during the valuation. It is useless to refer to the fact that the cadastral value exceeds the market value.

An application to challenge a normative legal act must be filed with a court of general jurisdiction - the Supreme Court of the Republic, the regional court, the court of a federal city, the court of an autonomous region and the court of an autonomous district (clause 2, part 1, article 26 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation).

Acts of this kind, as a rule, are not fully challenged, but in terms of approving the results of the cadastral value of a particular land plot, but since violations were identified during the assessment, this casts doubt on the results of the assessment as a whole and may lead to invalidation of the normative act as a whole.

If the value indicated in the cadastre differs from the value indicated in the act, then the actions of the cadastral authority should be challenged in accordance with articles 27, 29 of the APC of the Russian Federation, i.e., in an arbitration court.

The cadastral authorities enter information into the state real estate cadastre (GKN) purely mechanically, transferring to it the cadastral value indicated in the valuation report approved by an act of the executive authority of the subject of the Russian Federation.

So, if the GKN does not include the price that is indicated in the act approving the results of the assessment, then the actions of the cadastral authority can be considered illegal.

The cadastral value is determined by specific (average specific) indicators

This option is drawn up in the form of specific and average specific indicators of the cadastral value for certain groups of destination objects and territorial units. The method is used to determine the cadastral value of real estate objects that are not valued according to the first option.

To determine the cadastral value of a plot using a specific indicator, the cadastral authority determines which group by purpose and location it belongs to, and then multiplies the specific indicator of this group by the area of ​​the site, as established by the Guidelines for determining the cadastral value of newly formed land plots and existing land plots in cases of changing the category of land, the type of permitted use or clarifying the area of ​​the land plot (approved by order of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia dated 12.08.06 No. 222). However, the cadastral value of other objects is determined in the same manner (Order of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia dated March 18, 2011 No. 113).

When determining the cadastral value on the basis of specific indicators, the cadastral authority is more free to make decisions, therefore, the risk of incorrect determination of the cadastral value due to the error of the cadastral authority specialist increases.

In this case, it is possible to challenge the actions of the cadastral authority in an arbitration court in accordance with Chapter 24 of the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation in connection with the use of an incorrect specific indicator in determining the cadastral value of the disputed object.

Thus, the Presidium of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation in its decision dated 02.06.09 No. 21/09 indicated that arbitration courts have jurisdiction over cases of challenging the actions of state bodies (clause 2, part 1, article 29 of the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation), and it was the cadastral body that committed the violation, i.e. e. incorrectly applied the act, which approved the average specific indicators of the cadastral value.

It must be borne in mind that the cadastral value is set and applied for the future, i.e. it is impossible to return payments already made for past periods (Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation dated 06/28/11 No. 913/11).

Thus, if there is not much time left before the approval of the new results of the cadastral valuation, then there is no point in challenging the old results.

So, the actions of the cadastral authority are contested according to the rules of Chapter 24 of the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. At the same time, it should be remembered that such a claim can be made within three months from the date when the applicant became aware of the violation of his rights and legitimate interests (part 4 of article 198 of the APC of the Russian Federation).

However, depending on the specific circumstances, a dispute in which claims are made to recognize actions as illegal must be considered in the course of action proceedings. Therefore, a general limitation period of three years applies.

Thus, the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation indicated that clarification of the cadastral value, the group of types of permitted use and the average specific indicator should take place in the order of action proceedings, since disputes related to determining the type of permitted use and cadastral value of land plots affect the interests of their right holders in the field of not only tax and land relations, but also civil circulation. Thus, they are considered according to the general rules of action proceedings, regardless of the fact that the cause of the dispute was the actions of the cadastral registration authorities (Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation of December 15, 2011 No. 12651/11).

If the cadastral authority, when determining the cadastral value of a plot that is formed by allocation, uses the average specific indicator for the cadastral quarter instead of the specific indicator of the converted plot, then it violates the regulations (clause 2.1.18 of Guidelines No. 222) and the question of challenging the actions should be raised .

If the cadastral body incorrectly determined the value due to the erroneous qualification of the purpose of the object, then such a requirement is considered in the order of action proceedings (in this case, the plaintiff must prove the incorrectness of the determination).

There is another way that seems to be the most optimal - to achieve a revision of the cadastral value or the establishment of a cadastral value in the amount of the market value. This is not an appeal or contest, it can be applied both when the cost of a particular site is determined, and when the cost is calculated according to the specific (average specific) indicator.

The state cadastral valuation is a mass valuation, which is aimed at establishing the market value of the objects being valued. Of course, it is less accurate than an individual market assessment, since it does not take into account all the characteristics of the object. With a mass assessment, even a simple inspection of the object is not necessary.

Thus, the default individual valuation is more accurate, and interested parties have the right to demand a revision of the cadastral value based on the results of the state cadastral valuation and the establishment of a cadastral value in the market value based on the results of an individual valuation.

The Applicant disputes neither the reliability of the cadastral value, nor the legality of the normative act approving it, nor the actions of the cadastral authority. Therefore, these issues are not included in the subject of proof in the case.

It seems that this method - the revision of the cadastral value - is also convenient because the plaintiff does not have to prove the illegality of the normative act or the actions of the state body, as well as the incorrectness of the cadastral valuation. The plaintiff must be ready to prove the main thing - the reliability of the individual market valuation of the property, that is, that the report on the market value valuation submitted by him is more fair and correct than the result of the state cadastral valuation.

In order to challenge the act of approving the results of the state cadastral valuation, it is necessary to prove that formal violations were committed during the valuation. It is useless to refer to the fact that the cadastral value exceeds the market value.

If the cadastral value is entered into the cadastre in strict accordance with the act, then there is no point in challenging the illegality of the actions of the cadastral authority. But if a technical error occurred and the cadastre did not get the value that was determined in the act, then the actions of the cadastral authority can be appealed.

An individual valuation is more accurate by default, and interested parties have the right to demand a revision of the cadastral value based on the results of the state cadastral valuation and the establishment of a cadastral value in the amount of the market value based on the results of an individual valuation.

Konstantin BUSHUEV, expert at Legal Assessment LLC

This method is based on the assumption that there is a direct proportionality between the dependent indicator and the main parameter-argument. In this sense, the method of specific indicators can be considered as a special case of the pair correlation method, when data can be approximated using a regression equation of the form
y = aux,
from which follows
Yay \u003d Y: x,
where ay is the specific economic indicator per unit of the parameter-argument.
Having n the number of data y and x for a group of similar machines, the value of the specific indicator ay is determined as the arithmetic mean of the ratios ylx for all machines of the group, i.e.

The value ay can also be calculated using the least squares method, from the system of equations (3.12) we obtain

The reliability of a specific indicator is estimated by the values ​​of dispersion and variation. If there are several main parameters, then the specific indicator is taken for the parameter that has the smallest dispersion or variation. In some cases, the values ​​of the cost or its element are calculated according to a number of specific indicators, and then their average value is taken.
The method of specific indicators is widely used at the pre-design and early design stages of creating machines for an approximate estimate of the cost of a new design. In this case, the mass of the structure is most often chosen as the main parameter, which is explained by its universal nature as a parameter (any structure has mass) and the high closeness of the correlation between cost and mass. The pair correlation coefficient for different groups of machines is in the range of 0.6-0.95.
The main advantage of the method is its simplicity and fast finding of the result. Design organizations have developed standards for unit costs per 1 kg or 1 ton of structure mass, depending on the type of machine, design complexity, serial production and other characteristics. As an example, in Table. 3.9 shows data on the cost of 1 ton of construction of non-standard equipment.
It should be emphasized that the unit cost indicator per unit mass varies for various technological machines within a fairly wide range, for example, 150-2500 rubles / ton. Therefore, in order to avoid too large an error when using this method, the following conditions must be observed. Firstly, the specific indicator per unit mass of the structure for the designed machine should be evaluated on the basis of a narrow range of existing machines that are sufficiently similar to the designed one in terms of design complexity, power, overall dimensions, material structure and structure according to

Specific cost of 1 ton of non-standard equipment design

Complexity designs	Equipment characteristics and analogues	Specific cost of 1 ton of construction, rub/t
Very simple	Welded structures without machining: racks, workbenches, metal containers	300-400
Simple	Welded structures, in which 15-20% of the parts are machined: roller tables, hand trucks, hangers	500-600
Medium	Welded structures where 30-40% of the parts are machined: tanks, belt conveyors, screw conveyors, slat conveyors	700-900
Complex	Structures where 40-50% of the parts are machined and there are purchased products: overhead conveyors, washers, shot blasting chambers	1000-1200
Very difficult	Designs where more than 50% of the parts are machined and there are a large number of purchased products	1300-1400
Presses and machines	Mechanical and hydraulic presses, special metalworking machines	1500-2000

the mass of assembly units and parts included in the design. Secondly, if it is not possible to select a close analogue (or analogues) and the specific cost per unit mass varies greatly in a selected set of similar machines, then it is necessary to establish the dependence of the specific indicator on other technical parameters using the methods of pair or multiple correlation described above.
Let's consider such an example. It is required to determine the conditional price of the designed industrial robot (automatic manipulator), the main technical data of which are: load capacity 160 kgf, electric motor power 11 kW, weight 6500 kg, number of degrees of freedom (working movements) 3. In table. 3.10 shows the main parameters and economic indicators of serial samples of domestically produced robots with a sufficiently high load capacity.
From Table. 3.10 it can be seen that the specific price of a unit of mass varies significantly and its connection with the number of degrees is found
Table 3.10 Main parameters of industrial robots
freedom of the working body of the robot. The calculated equation of the regression line of the relationship between the specific cost of a unit mass Cu and the number of degrees of freedom NCB has the form
With the number of degrees of freedom NCB - 3, the unit price of the designed robot will be Tsu = 15.58 rubles / kg, and the price of the entire robot will be 15.58-6500 = 101,270 rubles.
The specific economic indicator per unit mass shows a clear downward trend with an increase in the total mass of the structure, its overall dimensions and power for almost all types of machines. This regularity is explained by the following circumstances. With an increase in the mass and overall dimensions of the machine, both the number of parts in it and the mass of individual parts increase.
As the analysis of statistical data shows, the growth rate of the mass of the machine significantly exceeds the growth rate of the number of parts, which means that with an increase in the total mass of the machine, the number of parts per unit mass decreases, and the average mass of one part increases. At the same time, for structurally similar parts, the increase in cost with increasing mass has a smoothly decelerating character.
The disadvantage of the method of specific indicators per unit mass is its low accuracy, as well as the fact that cost planning and pricing by weight of products create a negative interest of developers in increasing the mass of structures and thereby justifying increased costs. The desire to improve the accuracy of the method of specific indicators has led to the emergence of its varieties, in which, in one way or another, the influence of other (except mass) parameters and factors is quantitatively taken into account.
More accurate results are obtained by the method of specific indicators adjusted with the help of indices (relative coefficients).
The corrected specific indicator akor is calculated by the formula where dy is the specific cost indicator per unit mass for certain reference values ​​of parameters and factors; /b /2, lt - indices of change in the specific indicator from changes in parameters (factors) хb x2f Xm in comparison with their reference values.
Indices (relative coefficients) are more accurately determined using correlation models. A simplified way to find the indices is as follows. For an analogue and a new machine, the technical parameters and production factors xlf x29 xt refer to the mass of the machine G and thereby determine the specific

Index values ​​(relative coefficients) are obtained by dividing the corresponding specific indicators for the new machine and viaatglv "
At the pre-design stage and early design stages, information about the mass of the structure is unreliable. Under these conditions, to assess the mass and other technical parameters of the designed machine, it is useful to use the theory of similarity and modeling, according to which, firstly, similar phenomena (systems) have some identical combinations of parameters, called similarity criteria, and secondly, the dependence between the parameters, characterizing the work process in the system, can be represented in the form of a criterion equation and, thirdly, to establish similarity, we can restrict ourselves to the equality of the defining similarity criteria containing independent parameters of the processes and the system, and the similarity of the uniqueness conditions .
For machines that are mechanical systems, under the condition of dynamic similarity, there is a similarity of velocities, accelerations, forces, masses, work and powers. If these parameters are known in one machine, then with the help of similarity coefficients it is possible to calculate the values ​​of these parameters in another machine similar to it.
The similarity of machines established in real conditions is approximate, since often not all the determining parameters are known, errors occur in the measurement of parameters, and due to the complexity of the working process of the machine, its exact mathematical description is not possible.
Let us consider a specific example of applying the theory of similarity and modeling to determine the mass of a structure and the cost of a high-force hot forging press. The projected press is created according to the traditional design scheme and is, as it were, a continuation of the existing parametric series of presses with great effort. The terms of reference set parameters such as the nominal force, the number of strokes of the slide used and the compliance of the structure. The mass of the press must first be determined if it is known to be dynamically similar to existing designs.
The similarity criterion, which includes all the technical parameters noted above, is found on the basis of dimensional analysis.
It is known that the dimension of any physical quantity is a product of the dimensions of primary quantities raised to a power - the basic units of measurement. For any mechanical system, the basic units of measurement are meter, kilogram, second, i.e., units of length L, mass G and time T. Thus, the dimension of any Xi value can be expressed as follows:

For example, the dimension of force is expressed in terms of the dimensions of the basic units [L] [G] [Г] "2. Using the system of units, you can write down the dimensions for all other physical quantities. Let there be m values ​​xІY i \u003d 1, 2, ..., t Any similarity criterion is some combination of xx\
P == X\XX1* . . . Xzmt
1 1 t

Finding a similarity criterion means finding the values ​​of the exponents z2, ..., zm- These values ​​are determined from the system of equations:
(3.19)

If pn is the number of independent units of measurement (in our case, pn = 3), then from the system of equations (3.19) we obtain m - pn independent solutions, and, consequently, m - pn independent similarity criteria. In our case, m - pn = 4 - 3 = 1, i.e., we have one independent similarity criterion. The degrees of dimensions And "/gt; xi For each parameter are given in Table 3.11. The system of equations (3.19) in this case has the form
(3.20)
From the system of equations (3.20) follows the following dependence of the required quantities: zx = -z2: 2 = -z3 = -z4. We set zx = -1, then z2 = 2, z3 = 1, z4 = 1. We get the similarity criterion

T a b l e 3.11
Exponents for press parameters


It is not difficult to verify that the same result will be obtained in the end, given other values ​​of r. For all dynamically similar presses, the criterion P must be the same in value. In table. 3.12 shows the main technical parameters of domestic hot-forging presses and the similarity criterion calculated from them, and in fig. 3.6 shows the relationship between the similarity criterion and the nominal force. Analysis of the data given in table. 3.12 and in fig. 3.6 leads to the conclusion that all the press models under consideration are not dynamically similar, since there is a significant range of values ​​of the criterion P from 8.77 to 27.87 with an average value of 16.26. Thus, for the entire set of presses, there is a deviation from the similarity law by more than 50%.
At the same time, the entire set under consideration can be divided into two groups, within which the similarity is satisfied quite satisfactorily. The first group includes presses with a large value of P (19.29-27.25), the average value of the similarity criterion in this group is 22.65, the standard deviation is 3.23, the maximum deviation is 5.22, which is 23% of the average value .
The second group includes]] presses "with a small value (8.77-15.38), the average value of the similarity criterion in this group

Rice. 3.6. Scatter of Similarity Criterion Values ​​for Presses of Different Forces
equal to 12.27, the standard deviation is 1.72, the maximum deviation is 3.5, which is 28% of the average value. According to I recommendations
prof. P. M. Alabuzhev, similarity can be considered established with deviations from the similarity law up to 30%.
It is interesting to note that the produced grouping according to the criterion P

Calculation of similarity criterion for presses

Model press	An effort, ts	Number of used moves J, min-1	Compliance, mm	Press weight, t	Criterion similarities
K862 s	630	16	1,96	35,0	27,87
K8538	630	16	1,458	42,0	24,88
K863 s	1000	11	2,8985	55,0	19,29
K8540	1000	11	1,88	67,6	15,38
К04.019.840	1000	11	1,6611	65,15	13,09
K864 with	1600	10	3,7471	88,0	20,61
K8542	1600	10	1,6260	120,0	12,19
KB866	2500	7,2	4,1667	143,0	12,35
K8544	2500	7,2	2,0833	203,0	8,77
K8546	4000	7	4,4444	378,0	20,58
KA8546	4000	7	3,1164	336,0	12,83
K8548V	6300	5	4,85	625	12,03
PKKSH-8000	8000	4	5,00	1150	11,5

1 The number of strokes used by domestic presses is 11 - 14% of the number of slider strokes.
led to the unification of almost all presses of old models into the first group, and the presses of modern models fell into the second group. This indirectly confirms the correctness of the obtained similarity criterion. The most representative, covering almost the entire range of efforts, is the second group of presses. We accept that the basic press of great effort belongs to this group.
The relationship between the parameters of the presses of the second group is established by the criterion equation
From equation (3.21), after transformations, we obtain an expression for the mass of the press
If the designed press will have the following parameters: Y = 12,500 tf, pnc - 4 min-1 and b = 6 mm, then its mass according to formula (3.21) will be

Using the method of specific economic indicators, we determine the cost of the designed press by multiplying the specific cost of 1 ton of structure by weight.

With the method of specific indicators, the cost of the designed product is determined on the basis of a statistical indicator - the specific cost per unit of mass (Fig. 4.13) or some

The application of the method of specific indicators ensures the accuracy of the technical and economic analysis only in conditions of almost complete analogy of structures. Therefore, when designing such complex products as machine tools, automatic lines, automobiles, characterized by a wide variety of drive schemes, layouts, and so on, the method of specific indicators can only find limited application.

The method of specific indicators. When using this method, there is a problem of highlighting the key parameter, if we consider the speed of printing as such, then the price of the first, third and fourth printers should be the same, but the first one has a price of 400, and the third one has a price of 246.

The points method is more accurate than the method of specific indicators, but it does not allow to identify and take into account the mutual influence of individual product parameters on each other. The method finds application in the early stages of design for approximate cost calculations only if the principle of product construction and the proportional dependence of costs on parameters are preserved.

At the creative and research stages, the problem arises of valuation of the synthesized solutions for the product as a whole. For this purpose, a number of methods are used. The most common among them are the enlarged methods for calculating the cost of a product at the design stage, which are discussed in 7.5 (the method of specific indicators, the method of points, etc.).

For example, when using the method of specific indicators, the costs for the main functions of the LSI are calculated as the sum of the costs for obtaining the corresponding active area of ​​the wafer based on the specific costs for obtaining a unit area using the basic technology. Knowing the functional structure of the product, the type of technology, the area of ​​the plate for each function and the unit cost per unit area, it is possible to determine the cost of the product variant.

The method of specific indicators is used to determine and analyze the prices of small groups of products, characterized by the presence of one main parameter, the value of which largely determines the overall price level of the product. With this method, the unit price C is initially calculated

For example, a firm needs to determine the price of a 20 kW electric motor. An electric motor with a power of 10 kW at a price of 210,000 rubles is taken as a competitive one, all other technical and economic indicators of both electric motors are the same. Then, in accordance with the method of specific indicators, the price of an electric motor with a power of 20 kW will be (210,000/10) x 20 = 420,000 rubles.

In this example, the main requirement for determining prices by the method of specific indicators is violated - a mandatory reduction in the unit price for new products.

When determining one-time and current pre-production costs in the early stages of development and design of the release of consumer goods, when the necessary reporting and regulatory information is not available, aggregated methods of calculation and calculation can be used to calculate in the production and use of new products, in particular the method of specific indicators, regression analysis , method of structural and nodal analogy, aggregate method.

At the first stage of calculation and application of specific indicators, we tried to apply aggregated methods for calculating the labor intensity of products to facilitate and simplify calculations. As signs of distribution, different indicators were chosen both in the case of the plant and by workshops. However, the audit showed the unsuitability of the specific indicators calculated by aggregated methods either for improving pricing, or for planning and evaluating the activities of enterprises and determining the intensity of plans. Specific indicators for types of products in dynamics when calculating using aggregated methods changed abruptly under the influence of changes in the structure of products, did not correspond to changes in technology and organization of production, and did not reflect real costs and resources per unit of specific products. The costs and resources per unit of output obtained using aggregated and conditional distribution methods did not correspond to the real participation of one or another category of workers and one or another fixed production assets in the production of each type of product.

In the early stages of development and design of new technology, when there is no specific (reporting and regulatory) information, to calculate the current costs in the production and use of new products, aggregated methods of calculation can be used, in particular, the method of specific indicators, regression analysis, the method of structural and item-nodal analogies, aggregate and balance methods, etc. In this case, the cost structure and the standards used in the production of similar products at existing enterprises with advanced technology and equipped with advanced equipment should be taken into account in the calculations.

Method of specific indicators

Among the normative-parametric methods, the method of specific indicators, the method of regression analysis, as well as aggregate and scoring methods are distinguished.

The method of specific indicators involves the calculation of the unit price of a unit of the main parameter of the base product, the price of which has already been established. The method is used to calculate the prices of small groups of goods characterized by the presence of one main parameter, the monetary value of which largely determines the overall price level. The disadvantage of the method is that when using it, all other consumer properties of the product are not taken into account, except for one - the main one, the influence on the price of supply and demand is completely ignored, the possibility of alternative use of products is not taken into account.

The method of specific indicators is used to calculate and analyze the prices of small groups of products, characterized by the presence of one main parameter, the value of which largely determines the overall price level of the product.

METHOD OF SPECIFIC INDICATORS BASED ON A SINGLE PRODUCT PARAMETER

When taking into account only one indicator of the product, it is possible to draw up a quantitative relationship in which the price of the product is made dependent on a specific indicator. This approach to determining prices is called the method of specific indicators, according to which

METHOD OF SPECIFIC INDICATORS

SPECIFIC INDICATORS METHOD is used to compare the consumer value of interchangeable goods, the marginal utility of which can be interpreted using one main consumer parameter. Method

The method of specific indicators is one of the simplest methods of parametric analysis and price justification. However, it can mainly be applied to fairly simple products, in which the main indicators are area, weight, width or length, service life, content of the main component and other characteristics. Of course, the calculation of one, even the main, parameter will not give an accurate assessment of the market value of modern complex varieties of products. In such cases, this method can only be used as a rough and approximate preliminary estimate of the product, especially at the beginning of the design of fairly complex products. Such narrow boundaries of its use in complex mechanical engineering are still somewhat expanding in instrument making, radio engineering, and also electronics. In all likelihood, it is more applicable in the fuel, raw materials and industries that produce materials. This method is also widely used in pricing for agricultural raw materials, because there is a system of surcharges and discounts, for example, for the content of starch in potatoes, sugar in beets, the production of organic products, etc.

Specific indicator method 37/

Common to the parametric series is the presence of the main parameter, the value of which determines the levels of production costs and conditionally variable operating costs. Therefore, it seems appropriate to calculate the value of economic indicators for the members of the parametric series using the method of specific indicators. The essence of this method lies in the assumption that the cost of manufacturing a product and conditionally variable operating costs are directly proportional to the value of the main parameter. Based on this premise, the unit cost of production (conditionally variable operating costs) per unit of the main parameter Su is determined. Comparison Su for a given parametric series can be calculated both on the basis of the indicators of one representative of the series, and on the basis of weighted average indicators for the entire series.

Thus, with the use of expert methods, several parameters of the object are reduced to a dimensionless value. Using the scoring of the set of object parameters, similarly to the method of specific indicators (see formula 9.2), you can calculate the cost elements for a new object. Suppose the cost of the base object is 115 million rubles, the sum of points for the parameters for predicting the cost is 10.85 for the base object, and 12.77 for the new object. Then the cost of a new object, excluding adjustment factors, will be equal to

The norms of the need for equipment for the creation of a park in long-term planning are calculated by combining two methods of the extrapolation method and the factor (index) method. The use of these two methods makes it possible to take into account the trend of changes in specific indicators corresponding to the norm in the analyzed (reporting) period and the factors of scientific and technological progress.

Calculation of norms by extrapolation. The essence of the extrapolation method is to identify the trend of changes in actual specific indicators that correspond to the norm in the reporting period (for 5-8 years, depending on the planning period) and extend this trend to the planning period.

The development of norms according to the extrapolation method is carried out in the following order, determine the actual specific indicators corresponding to the selected measure of the norm, at the end of each year in the reporting period, triple the graph of the dynamic series of actual specific indicators in the analyzed (reporting) period, reveal the trend of change over the years of the reporting period of the indicators of the dynamic series for assessing the nature of the change in specific indicators in this period, they align the dynamic series with the accepted norm meter using the least squares method according to rectilinear or curvilinear dependencies; the essence of the least squares method is to find the smallest sum of squared deviations of the actual points from the alignment line; (or for the last years of five-year periods) according to the equations of curves of various mathematical functions.

Calculation of norms by the factorial method. The essence of the factorial method is to adjust the specific indicator (corresponding to the norm) for the base year with the help of coefficients (indices) that reflect the change in norm-forming factors in the planned year compared to the base year. The base year is the last year of the reporting period.

The development of norms for the future by the factorial (index) method is carried out in the following order; determine the value of the actual specific indicator corresponding to the norm for the base year; establish norm-forming factors that affect the change in the value of the norm in the planned year compared to the base year;